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6. Current Caregiver Characteristics, the Living Environment, and Caregiver Functioning
This chapter presents information about the current caregivers for children whose families have been investigated for maltreatment. Current caregivers are primarily mothers, although they also include some fathers, relatives, and—for about one-ninth of the children in the child welfare population—out-of-home caregivers. (As discussed in Chapter 3, in-home caregivers are primarily biological parents but also include relatives, other-than-kinship foster care providers, adoptive parents, and step parents.) Caregiver characteristics, including demographic information, employment status, income, and poverty level, are compared across CWS settings.
A brief section is presented on out-of-home caregivers including group home caregiver characteristics and foster parent years of experience. Group home caregivers are described separately from other out-of-home caregivers because of their unique status as individuals employed to care for children living in out-of-home care. Group home caregivers are also the caregivers who are caring for many of the older and more troubled children.
Caregiver characteristics, and their expression through their relationships with children, have implications for the safety, permanency, and well-being of children. Many caregivers of CWS-involved children are living at or below the poverty level and also are young, single, and undereducated—factors associated with poverty (McLoyd, Ceballo, & Mangelsdorf, 1997). Living in poverty is associated with developmental disadvantages to children. Stressful life events, often related to financial problems, are associated with ineffective discipline and conduct problems in children and youths (Liaw & Brooks-Gunn, 1994; Stern, Smith, & Jang, 1999). Poverty is also associated with lower academic achievement, although children living in poor families with more supportive home environments (e.g., maternal warmth/acceptance, organization of the home, and opportunities for learning and cultural experiences) show less diminishment of academic achievement (Dubow & Ippolito, 1994).
Other aspects of children's living environment also are likely to be strongly related to their safety, permanency, and well-being. This chapter presents findings about the home environments of all children in NSCAW—whether in in-home or out-of-home care. Several sections in this chapter describe caregiver and household characteristics that have been associated with child maltreatment, including the number of adults and children in the household and the relationship of the child to adults in the household.
NSCAW is the first national study to collect detailed information about the home environment, using the HOME-SF, for children living in foster care and children with a report of maltreatment who remain in the home. Developmental scholars have raised serious questions about the capacity of both the biological and foster homes of children who have become involved with CWS to provide developmentally appropriate and nurturing services (Beckwith et al., 1999; Greenwalt, Sclare, & Portes, 1998; Orme and Buehler, 2001).
Although public policy implicitly assumes that out-of-home environments are safer and more supportive of children's development, little direct measurement of these environments (and the characteristics of their caregivers) is available. A review of the characteristics of foster parents and the living environments in which children are raised (Orme & Buehler, 2001) revealed the limits of available research, indicating that “it is startling how little is known how foster parents and families vary on … important dimensions” (p. 15).
6.1 Caregiver Demographic Characteristics
Before describing details of caregivers' functioning and the living environment, we first view caregivers more generally. The demographic characteristics of in-home caregivers, relative caregivers, foster caregivers, and group home caregivers are presented. The extent to which caregivers' race/ethnicity matches the race/ethnicity of the child is described for the out-of-home caregivers. Data from the U.S. Census and National Survey of America's Families (NSAF) are used to learn how caregivers involved with CWS compare with those in other national surveys of the general population.
6.1.1 Caregiver Age
Caregivers of children who become involved with CWS vary widely in age. Much of this variation is associated with whether the caregiver is the in-home caregiver (usually the mother) or an out-of-home caregiver. The average age of the caregiver is approximately 34 years, with over half of all caregivers between the ages of 25 and 44 years. There is a significant association between service setting and caregiver age. Out-of-home caregivers are far older. Over half of the out-of-home caregivers are 45 years or older, compared with less than 10% of in-home caregivers. These older out-of-home caregivers are predominantly foster and kinship caregivers. About two-thirds of group home caregivers and permanent caregivers are 34 years and younger (Table 6-1).
6.1.2 Caregiver Gender
The majority of caregivers are female (90%), although this is somewhat less true among older caregivers. Significantly fewer caregivers aged 24 and younger are male (3.6%) compared with every other age group (25 to 34 years: 10.9%; 35 to 44 years: 11.4%; 45 to 54 years: 12.0%; 55 years and older: 16.3%). Caregiver gender does not vary significantly by service setting or caregiver race/ethnicity (Table 6-1).
6.1.3 Caregiver Race/Ethnicity
The majority of caregivers are either White, non-Hispanic (51%) or African American, non-Hispanic (26%). Almost one-fifth of caregivers are Hispanic (17%), and 7% of caregivers are of other races/ethnicities. The race/ethnicity of caregivers is similar across CWS settings (Table 6-1). For out-of-home placements, correspondence between the race and ethnicity of foster caregivers and children in their care has long been of interest to CWS policymakers and program administrators. Because of this, and because the race/ethnicity of children remaining in the home almost always matches the race/ethnicity of their caregiver, in this section we focus more on foster caregivers.23
| Characteristics | TOTAL | Setting | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL Out-of-Home^ | |||
| Percent/ (SE) | |||||||||
| Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 25.5 (2.7) |
23.5 (2.9) |
28.4 (3.4) |
24.8 (2.8) |
24.0 (2.8) |
29.6 (4.0) |
51.9 (12.2) |
30.9 (3.6) |
| White | 51.4 (2.7) |
51.2 (4.3) |
51.2 (3.8) |
51.2 (3.8) |
51.2 (3.8) |
56.8 (4.7) |
41.3 (11.4) |
53.9 (5.2) |
|
| Hispanic | 16.3 (3.3) |
17.6 (4.0) |
15.4 (3.0) |
17.0 (3.5) |
13.2 (7.0) |
9.2 (2.2) |
--- | 10.4 (3.5) |
|
| Other | 6.8 (1.0) |
7.8 (1.3) |
5.0 (0.8) |
7.0 (1.1) |
5.8 (1.6) |
4.4 (1.1) |
--- | 4.8 (0.9) |
|
| Age a | ≤24 | 17.8 (1.2) |
19.3 (1.5) |
19.7 (1.8) |
19.4 (1.3) |
1.2 (0.4) |
2.4 (1.1) |
10.8 (4.2) |
4.7 (1.6) |
| 25-34 | 41.0 (1.3) |
45.9 (1.8) |
40.1 (1.7) |
44.3 (1.4) |
13.5 (2.3) |
8.0 (1.7) |
56.8 (10.7) |
15.0 (1.9) |
|
| 35-44 | 27.9 (1.3) |
26.5 (1.7) |
31.4 (2.6) |
27.8 (1.5) |
38.8 (3.9) |
19.7 (2.9) |
10.4 (3.6) |
28.6 (2.6) |
|
| 45-54 | 9.1 (1.0) |
6.9 (1.1) |
6.7 (1.1) |
6.9 b (0.9) |
25.2 (2.3) |
34.9 (3.5) |
7.4 (3.5) |
26.4 (2.0) |
|
| ≥55 | 4.3 (0.6) |
1.4 (0.5) |
2.0 (0.6) |
1.6 (0.4) |
21.4 (3.5) |
35.1 (5.0) |
--- | 25.4 (3.1) |
|
| Marital Status b | Married | 32.4 (1.4) |
29.8 (1.7) |
28.2 (2.0) |
29.4 (1.4) |
66.1 (6.7) |
50.4 (5.5) |
72.9 (8.3) |
56.4 (4.3) |
| Separated | 15.6 (1.2) |
16.9 (1.6) |
15.9 (1.8) |
16.6 (1.3) |
8.4 (5.5) |
6.6 (1.5) |
--- | 7.5 (2.1) |
|
| Divorced | 20.9 (1.3) |
22.0 (1.7) |
19.9 (1.7) |
21.4 (1.4) |
11.8 (2.1) |
20.6 (4.4) |
--- | 16.4 (2.5) |
|
| Widowed | 3.1 (0.7) |
2.1 (0.6) |
3.0 (1.0) |
2.4 (0.5) |
5.2 (1.4) |
14.2 (6.3) |
--- | 8.7 (2.8) |
|
| Never Married | 28.1 (1.7) |
29.2 (2.1) |
33.1 (3.2) |
30.2 (1.8) |
8.6 (2.6) |
8.2 (2.0) |
21.4 (7.1) |
11.0 (1.6) |
|
| Highest Degree c | No degree | 28.7 (1.5) |
27.8 (1.9) |
34.5 d (2.6) |
29.6 (1.7) |
7.9 e (1.5) |
36.1 (5.3) |
0 | 21.4 (2.8) |
| HS Diploma GED | 44.2 (1.2) |
46.0 (1.6) |
40.7 (2.4) |
44.5 (1.3) |
53.7 (4.6) |
35.0 (4.2) |
18.0 (10.6) |
41.9 (2.9) |
|
| Associates or VocTech | 19.4 (1.2) |
19.8 (1.7) |
18.6 (1.7) |
19.5 (1.3) |
26.0 (4.5) |
17.3 (4.4) |
5.7 (2.5) |
19.0 (2.3) |
|
| Bachelor's or Higher | 5.0 (0.8) |
4.0 (0.9) |
2.8 (0.5) |
3.7 (0.7) |
10.0 (1.6) |
9.5 (3.4) |
76.0 (10.7) |
15.6 (1.8) |
|
| Other | 2.6 (0.5) |
2.4 (0.6) |
3.5 (0.8) |
2.7 (0.5) |
2.4 (0.6) |
2.0 (0.9) |
0.3 (0.3) |
2.1 (0.5) |
|
| Employment Status f | Full-time | 42.2 (1.5) |
43.3 g (2.1) |
38.0 h (2.3) |
41.9 (1.7) |
42.2 i (5.1) |
37.9 j (4.6) |
99.5 (0.4) |
44.4 (3.0) |
| Part-time | 10.5 (0.9) |
11.0 (1.5) |
10.2 (1.2) |
10.8 (1.1) |
12.3 (2.4) |
4.8 (1.0) |
--- | 8.3 (1.4) |
|
| Unemployed | 10.6 (0.9) |
10.3 (1.0) |
14.6 (1.4) |
11.5 (0.9) |
1.7 (1.0) |
3.7 (1.6) |
--- | 4.0 (1.1) |
|
| Do not work | 29.3 (1.7) |
27.9 k (1.8) |
29.0 l (2.7) |
28.2 (1.8) |
37.0 (3.2) |
49.4 (5.1) |
0.2 (0.2) |
38.4 (2.6) |
|
| Other | 7.3 (1.0) |
7.4 (1.3) |
8.3 (1.3) |
7.7 (1.1) |
6.7 (1.6) |
4.2 (1.5) |
0.3 (0.4) |
4.9 (1.0) |
|
| TOTAL | 100 | 65.5 (1.6) |
24.0 (1.5) |
88.8 (1.2) |
4.5 (0.6) |
5.2 (0.6) |
0.9 (0.2) |
11.2 (1.2) |
|
|
d Education level of in-home caregivers receiving child welfare services and non-kinship foster caregivers is different (X2=34.4, p<.001) (back) g Employment status of in-home caregivers not receiving child welfare services and group home caregivers is different (X2=22.7, p<.001) (back)
h Employment status of in-home caregivers receiving child welfare services and group home caregivers is different (X2=22.9, p<.001) (back)
i Employment status of non-kinship caregivers and group home caregivers is different (X2=26.6, p<.001) (back)
j Employment status of kinship caregivers and group home caregivers is different (X2=20.0, p<.001) (back)
|
Race/ethnicity of the child and nonkinship foster caregivers generally match. Approximately two-thirds of African American children have an African American foster parent and most White children (92%) have a White foster parent. Only 42% of Hispanic children have a Hispanic foster parent and slightly less than one-third of other race/ethnicity children are living with other race/ethnicity caregivers (Table 6-2). This match of other race/ethnicity children and caregivers may, however, be an overestimate because this category comprises children who are a variety of races/ethnicities (e.g., Native Indian/Alaskan, Asian/Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander). Among all the children in foster care or kinship care, 78% live with a caregiver with shared racial/ethnic identity.
| Race/Ethnicity of Child | Race/Ethnicity of Current Caregiver | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| African American Percent (SE) |
White Percent (SE) |
Hispanic Percent (SE) |
Other Percent (SE) |
|
| African American | 65.5 (6.0) |
16.0 (4.7) |
13.4 (7.2) |
5.1 (2.9) |
| White | 3.3 (1.2) |
92.4 (2.0) |
2.9 (1.3) |
2.4 (1.1) |
| Hispanic | 3.6 (1.6) |
48.5 (20.5) |
42.0 (21.0) |
2.7 (2.0) |
| Other | 4.7 (2.2) |
42.4 (9.4) |
9.1 (5.5) |
31.4 (7.9) |
We also examined the converse—the proportion of foster caregivers of each racial/ethnic group who care for a child with the same ethnicity. While 88% of African American foster caregivers care for African American children, 68% of White foster parents care for White children, and slightly under 50% of Hispanic foster parents care for Hispanic children. Children of other races/ethnicities live in the care of other race/ethnicity caregivers 43% of the time. Again, this seeming match of other race/ethnicity caregivers and children may be deceptive (Table 6-3).
| Race/ Ethnicity of Current Caregiver | Race/Ethnicity of Child | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Percent/ (SE) | ||||
| African American Percent (SE) | White Percent (SE) | Hispanic Percent (SE) | Other Percent (SE) | |
| African American | 88.4 (3.3) |
3.3 (1.2) |
3.6 (1.6) |
4.7 (2.2) |
| White | 11.7 (2.8) |
68.3 (6.6) |
13.8 (6.9) |
6.3 (2.2) |
| Hispanic | 38.8 (5.1) |
8.5 (6.7) |
47.7 (5.1) |
5.4 (1.6) |
| Other | 34.2 (15.3) |
15.9 (7.3) |
7.1 (4.5) |
42.8 (14.9) |
6.1.4 Marital Status
Approximately one-third of caregivers are married, one-third are separated or divorced, and one-third has never been married. A small proportion of caregivers are widowed (3%). Caregiver marital status differs significantly by service setting. A majority (56%) of out-of-home caregivers are married, whereas in-home caregivers' marital status is more evenly distributed among those married, divorced, and never married. In-home cases open to CWS and in-home cases with closed CWS cases have nearly matching percentages for each type of marital status (Table 6-1), with about 29% currently married, a slightly larger proportion never married, and the remainder married previously.
6.1.5 Education Level
Caregivers reported on the highest educational degree they had obtained. Almost one-third of caregivers have less than a high school diploma, and nearly half have a high school diploma. Almost 20% have an Associate or Vocational-Technical degree, and only 5% have a bachelor's degree or higher. An additional 3% have other types of degrees (e.g., RN). A significant association exists between education level and child setting. The highest proportion of caregivers with no high school degree are kinship caregivers (36%) and caregivers with in-home open CWS cases (35%). Kinship and in-home caregivers receiving child welfare services are more likely than foster caregivers to have no high school degree. Kinship caregivers have the most even distribution of educational achievement, with just over one-third having no degree, just over one-third having a high school diploma, and just less than one-third having an other, Associate, or Bachelor's degree or higher. Group home caregivers are significantly more educated than any other group, as all group home caregivers have at least a high school diploma or GED and 75% have a Bachelor's degree or higher (Table 6-1).
6.1.6 Employment Status
Almost half of all caregivers work full time outside the home, whereas approximately one-third do not work. The remaining caregivers are fairly evenly distributed in the proportion that work part time (11%), are unemployed (11%), and report other employment status (7%). A significant association exists between employment status and service setting. Group home caregivers are significantly different from caregivers in every other service setting. Group home caregivers are, by definition, employed and almost all work full time, while only about 40% of caregivers in the other types of service settings work full time. Additionally, kinship caregivers are significantly more likely to not work than in-home caregivers with open or closed CWS cases (Table 6-1).
6.1.7 Comparisons to Other National Studies
The 2000 U.S. Census and 1999 National Survey of America's Families (NSAF) data provide a basis for comparing caregivers of children involved with CWS to other national samples (Table 6-4). Caregivers involved with CWS are compared to other families on two variables: age and education. The Census defines family as “a householder and one or more other people living in the same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). Consequently, not all Census families include children. This explains why 21% of all U.S. heads of all households are over age 54, in contrast to the NSCAW population, in which just 4% are over age 54. The Census definition of family may also explain why Census families are fairly evenly distributed across age categories.
| Age | Total | Setting | CENSUS ^^ | NSAF ^^^ | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | Foster Home | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | All Families | All house-holds | Child's Mother Lives Elsewhere | ||
| Percent | |||||||||
| ≤24 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 14 | 7 | 4 |
| 25-34 | 41 | 46 | 40 | 13 | 8 | 57 | 14 | 34 | 21 |
| 35-44 | 28 | 26 | 31 | 39 | 20 | 10 | 16 | 43 | 38 |
| 45-54 | 9 | 7 | 7 | 25 | 35 | 7 | 13 | 14 | 24 |
| ≥55 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 21 | 35 | 15 | 21 | 2 | 13 |
|
^ Standard errors for NSCAW data are shown in Table 6-1 and are unavailable for NSAF and Census data. (back) ^^ The Census defines family as “a householder and one or more other people living in the same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001); consequently, not all Census families include children. (back) |
NSAF is a nationally representative survey of the characteristics of households with at least one member under age 65, including children, adults, and their families; therefore, it is more comparable to our sample of families than the Census data. The total NSCAW population is composed of caregivers younger than the entire sample of NSAF families (18% versus 7% under age 25). Caregiver age for NSAF households in which the mother lives elsewhere are most similar to foster and kinship caregiver families (http://newfederalism.urban.org/nsaf/cpuf, August 11, 2002).
NSCAW caregivers appear to have lower education levels than those in NSAF. Comparing caregiver education level to the NSAF sample, a greater proportion of caregivers of children involved with CWS have less than a high school education (29% versus 13%), while a smaller proportion have a Bachelor's degree or higher (5% versus 26%). The education level of all out-of-home caregivers most closely resembles NSAF households where the child's mother lives elsewhere (Table 6-5).
6.1.8 Caregiver Characteristics By In-Home Versus Out-of-Home Setting
In-home and out-of-home caregiver characteristics were compared using logistic regression to determine if bivariate relationships tested above were changed once the influences of caregiver characteristics of age, gender, race, marital status, education level, and employment status were controlled. The multivariate analysis generally confirmed bivariate analyses. Caregiver age, marital status, and education level differ significantly by in-home versus out-of-home settings. No significant associations exist for gender, race/ethnicity, or employment status (Table 6-6).
In-home caregivers are far younger than out-of-home caregivers. In-home caregivers have much greater odds than out-of-home caregivers of being under age 45 and significantly less odds of being aged 45 or older. With the older age groups as the reference groups, in-home caregivers are much more likely to be younger – they have over three times the odds (OR = 3.41, p < .001) of being aged 35 to 44 in contrast to being aged 45 to 54, and over 18 times the odds (OR = 18.48, p < .001) of being aged 35 to 44 years in contrast to being aged 55 years and older.
| Total | Setting | NSAF^^^ | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | |||||||||
| No Services | Services | Total In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL Out-of-Home^^ | All House-holds | Child's Mother Lives Elsewhere | ||
| Percent | ||||||||||
| No degree | 29 | 28 | 35 | 30 | 8 | 36 | --- | 21 | 13 | 17 |
| HS Diploma/ GED | 44 | 46 | 41 | 44 | 54 | 35 | 18 | 42 | 44 | 48 |
| Associate's or VocTech | 19 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 26 | 17 | 6 | 19 | 17 | 19 |
| Bachelor's or Higher | 5 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 10 | 10 | 76 | 16 | 26 | 16 |
| Other | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 | --- | 2 | 0 | 0 |
|
^ Standard errors for NSCAW data are shown in Table 6-1 and are unavailable for NSAF and Census data. (back)
^^ The Census defines family as “a householder and one or more other people living in the same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001); consequently, not all Census families include children. (back)
|
A significant association also exists between marital status and in-home versus out-of-home setting. In-home caregivers have significantly greater odds than out-of-home caregivers of being separated, divorced, or never married. Out-of-home caregivers have significantly greater odds of being married.
| Characteristics | OR | 95% CI | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 35 - 44 | (reference group) | |
| ≤ 24 | 6.91 * | 3.23, 14.80 | |
| 25 - 34 | 3.18 * | 2.18, 4.62 | |
| 45 - 54 | .29 * | .19, .44 | |
| ≥ 55 | .05 * | .03, .10 | |
| Gender | Female | (reference group) | |
| Male | 1.19 | .61, 2.32 | |
| Race/Ethnicity | White | (reference group) | |
| African American | .76 | .50, 1.41 | |
| Hispanic | 1.40 | .73, 2.68 | |
| Other | 1.78 | 1.04, 3.05 | |
| Marital Status | Married | (reference group) | |
| Separated | 4.85 * | 2.32, 10.13 | |
| Divorced | 3.87 * | 2.39, 6.27 | |
| Widowed | 1.47 | .62, 3.47 | |
| Never Married | 2.80 * | 1.95, 4.02 | |
| Highest Degree | High School Diploma/GED | (reference group) | |
| No degree | 1.51 | 1.00, 2.30 | |
| Associates or VocTech | 1.23 | .79, 1.91 | |
| Bachelor's or Higher | .34 * | .18, .63 | |
| Other | 1.61 | .67, 3.89 | |
| Employment Status | Full-time | (reference group) | |
| Part-time | 1.45 | .71, 2.95 | |
| Unemployed | 1.41 | .73, 2.75 | |
| Do not work | 1.03 | .68, 1.55 | |
| Other | 2.12 | 1.09, 4.12 | |
|
Cox and Snell pseudo-R2 is .19 * p<.001
|
A significant association exists for caregiver education and in-home versus out-of-home setting as well. On average, in-home caregivers have a significantly lower level of education than out-of-home caregivers. In-home caregivers are more likely to have a high school diploma or GED than a Bachelor's degree or higher. In-home caregivers have only one-third the odds (OR = .34, p < .001) of out-of-home caregivers of having a Bachelor's degree or higher.
When in-home caregivers are compared with children receiving and not receiving child welfare services (not shown in table), few differences are observed. In-home caregivers of children not receiving child welfare services tend to have greater odds of being aged 25 to 34 years (OR = 1.44, p ≤ .01) and working full time (OR = 1.55, p < .01). These findings provide evidence that many caregivers involved with CWS are facing challenges that can make childrearing extremely challenging, particularly for children with the kinds and degree of problems described in Chapter 5. Caregivers of children remaining in the home are younger, less educated, and more likely to be single than out-of-home caregivers—characteristics that may elevate risks for child maltreatment (e.g., Gringlas &Weintraub, 1995, Sedlak & Broadhurst, 1996) if steps are not taken to assist families. The findings that these conditions exist at such a high rate in the homes of families with allegations of child abuse and neglect is not surprising, but the high level of these risk factors in foster family homes is less well-known.
6.2 Out-of-Home Caregivers
Group home caregiver characteristics and foster parent years of experience are presented in this section. Group home caregivers are different from all other types of caregivers; therefore, a description of group caregivers is provided separately. Only group home caregivers are employed for the sole purpose of caring for the children under their supervision.
The number of years of experience of foster parents was examined separately for nonkinship and kinship foster care and group care to identify any differences between the three types of out-of-home placements. Kinship caregivers tend to have the least experience with caring for a CWS-involved child.
6.2.1 Group Home Caregiver Characteristics
Although relatively few children are residing in group care during the first months after CWS involvement, group care is a more common place to reside for older children and for children who remain in CWS for a longer time (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, in press; Webster, 2001). Nationally, according to the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis Reporting System (AFCARS)-derived information, about 8% of children in CWS supervised out-of-home care were residing in group care in 2001; this proportion rises to more than 40% for children aged 16 and older (Wulczyn, 2001). Yet there has not been a national study of group care for nearly two decades (Dore, Young, & Pappenfort, 1984). Although children were sampled and not group homes, and only one group home staff member was interviewed for each child, NSCAW offers unique information about group care providers.
Most group home caregivers are either African American (52%) or White (41%), with the remaining proportion being either Hispanic or other race/ethnicity. Group home caregivers are generally older than in-home caregivers and younger than nonkinship and kinship foster caregivers, with most group home caregivers being between the ages of 24 and 45. Group home caregivers are usually married (73%) or never married (21%). All have at least a high school diploma and most have a Bachelor's degree or higher, which most likely is due to employment requirements.
6.2.2 Foster Parent Years of Experience
Caregivers have an average of 4.5 years of experience as foster caregivers, though this varies widely depending on the age of the caregiver and whether they are foster caregivers or kinship caregivers (Table 6-7). In general, older caregivers have more experience as foster parents, and foster caregivers have more experience than kinship caregivers. There are no differences in foster parent experience by the race/ethnicity of the caregiver. Multivariate analysis confirmed that the CWS setting and caregiver's age have a significant relationship to the length of foster caregivers experience.
6.2.3 Discussion of Out-of-Home Caregivers Characteristics and Experience
Group home caregivers are distinguishable from other types of caregivers in several ways. Most notably, they are the only category of out-of-home caregivers who are hired as employees of a facility that provides a home for children who cannot remain in their own home. Also, group home caregivers are the largest group of caregivers with a Bachelor's degree or higher. Group home caregivers are somewhat older than in-home caregivers and may have more experience caring for children, but youths living in group homes are older and have more problems than children in other CWS settings.
Kinship caregivers tend to have the least experience of out-of-home caregivers in caring for CWS-involved children. Kinship caregivers generally have less familiarity with CWS and may need more information about resources to assist them in caring for children.
6.3 Household Characteristics
The characteristics of children's living environments play a role in their well-being. Children benefit when their basic needs for food, shelter, and adult attention are met. Households in which there is financial strain (i.e., inadequate income to cover the needs of all household members) pose a number of risks to children. The common co-occurrence of poverty and child maltreatment has long been recognized (Giovannoni & Billingsley, 1970). In fact, in the eyes of some scholars, CWS are primarily a response to poverty (Pelton, 1989). Caregivers who do not have sufficient income to pay for basic necessities for their children are likely to feel overwhelmed and anxious. Severe levels of poverty can result in family homelessness, child malnutrition, and inadequate medical care for children.
The number of household members, including the total number of adults and children in the home, has been posited as a risk factor for child maltreatment. The Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS) found that large family size is a risk factor for child maltreatment. Specifically, NIS reported that incidence rates of educational and physical neglect were higher for children in large families (those with four or more children) than for “only” children and children in families with two to three children (Sedlak & Broadhurst, 1996).
| Characteristics | TOTAL | Foster Care | Kinship Care | Group | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean/ (SE) | |||||
| Caregiver Age | <25 years | 1.3 b c d (0.7) |
--- | 0.3 (0.09) |
3.0 (1.4) |
| 25-34 years | 2.0 e f g (0.3) |
1.6 (0.2) |
1.3 (0.5) |
3.2 (1.1) |
|
| 35-44 years | 3.7 h (0.6) |
4.7 i (0.7) |
1.2 (0.3) |
11.0 j (2.7) |
|
| 45-54 years | 4.3 (0.4) |
6.8 k (0.8) |
2.6 (0.5) |
5.2 l (0.9) |
|
| 55+ years | 7.0 (1.0) |
9.1 (1.6) |
5.0 (1.0) |
--- | |
| Caregiver Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 5.2 (0.7) |
5.6 (0.8) |
4.2 (1.0) |
7.1 (3.4) |
| White | 4.2 (0.4) |
6.1 m (0.5) |
2.5 (0.6) |
4.9 (1.2) |
|
| Hispanic | 3.4 (0.5) |
4.5 n (0.6) |
1.4 (0.4) |
--- | |
| Other | 5.8 (1.5) |
6.6 (2.6) |
4.1 (1.4) |
--- | |
| TOTAL | 4.5 (0.3) |
5.8 a (0.4) |
3.0 (0.4) |
6.4 (1.7) |
|
|
Note: 31% of foster and kinship caregivers had 6 months or less experience. a Caregivers of children in foster care had more years' experience than caregivers of children in kinship care (t = 4.9, p ≤ .001). (back) b Caregivers between 35 and 44 years old had more years' experience than caregivers under 25 years old (t = 2.8, p ≤ .01). (back) c Caregivers between 45 and 54 years old had more years' experience than caregivers under 25 years old (t = 3.5, p ≤ .001). (back) d Caregivers 55 years and older had more years' experience than caregivers under 25 years old (t = 6.8, p ≤ .001). (back) e Caregivers between 35 and 44 years old had more years' experience than caregivers between 25 and 34 years (t = 3.0, p ≤ .01). (back) f Caregivers between 45 and 54 years old had more years' experience than caregivers between 25 and 34 years (t = 4.4, p ≤ .001). (back) g Caregivers 55 years old and over had more years' experience than caregivers between 25 and 34 years (t = 5.5, p ≤ .001). (back) h Caregivers 55 years old and over had more years' experience than caregivers between 35 and 44 years (t = 3.0, p ≤ .01). (back) i Foster caregivers between 35 and 44 years old had more years' experience than kinship caregivers between 35 and 44 years (t = 4.6, p ≤ .001). (back) j Group caregivers between 35 and 44 years old had more years' experience than kinship caregivers (t = 3.7, p ≤ .001). (back) k Foster caregivers between 45 and 54 years old had more years' experience than kinship caregivers between 45 and 54 years (t = 4.6, p ≤ .001). (back) l Group caregivers between 45 and 54 years old had more years' experience than kinship caregivers (t = 2.6, p ≤ .01). (back) m White foster caregivers had more years' experience than White kinship caregivers (t = 4.6, p ≤ .001). (back) |
Information in this section describes household characteristics for children. The total household income and level of poverty are considered across child welfare service settings and compared to national statistics. The relationship between the total number of children in the household and child setting is also presented. In addition, children's relationships to adults in the household are considered, as well as the extent of children's out-of-home placement with their siblings.
6.3.1 Total Household Income
Studies have consistently shown that families who are receiving CWS are likely to be receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and other income-tested federal service programs (e.g., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, 2000). NIS also found that families with incomes of less than $15,000 are four times more likely to be identified for child maltreatment than families on the whole (Sedlak and Broadhurst, 1996). Yet detailed descriptive data about family income of the families coming to the attention of CWS have not been available.
Approximately one-quarter of households who have been investigated for child maltreatment had a total household income under $10,000 (Table 6-8). A high proportion of households had a total income under $25,000 (65%). There was a significant association between service setting and income level (X2= 56.5, p ≤ .001). Although out-of-home caregiver households were more likely to have higher incomes than households with children living at home, and foster homes were significantly more likely to have higher incomes than kinship care homes (X2= 17.6, p < .01), substantial numbers of children in out-of-home placement were living in very poor households. There were no differences in household income among households with children living at home who received services and households that did not receive services (Table 6-8).
In-home and out-of-home caregivers of children involved with CWS have generally lower income levels than Census families (Table 6-9). Half of families in the general population have an income level at or above $50,000, compared with only 10% of those caring for children involved with CWS. The proportion of families caring for children involved with the CWS who live on less than $25,000 per year is high (almost 70%). Given the sizable families living in many of these households, financial resources are seriously strained for many caregivers involved with CWS.
While the Census definition of family does not necessarily include children, it is apparent that higher proportions of caregivers who have been investigated for child maltreatment are falling in the lower income brackets compared to households in the 2000 Census. Even if it were possible to examine only families with dependent children using the Census data, income levels might be more comparable, but it is unlikely that the large difference would be changed drastically.
6.3.2 Poverty Level
To determine the extent to which the household incomes reported above equate to levels of poverty, we followed the procedures used by the U.S. Census Bureau (Dalaker, 2000), which include both the family's income level and the number of adults and children in the household. According to the Census Bureau, the average threshold indicating poverty ranges from $11,239 for a two-member household to $35,060 for a household with nine or more members. We collected information about income levels in $5,000 increments that ranged from 0 to $5,000 per year to over $50,000 per year. The midpoint of each increment was chosen to indicate the household's income. Households with an income “over $50,000” were all assigned an income of $75,000 for the purposes of calculating poverty. This choice was based on information from NSAF that indicated that twice as many families had incomes greater than or equal to 300% of poverty than had incomes of 200% to 300% of the poverty level (Urban Institute, 2002). Children living in group homes or “other” types of out-of-home care are excluded from the following analyses.
| TOTAL | Setting | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL Out-of-Home^ | |||
| Percent/ (SE) | |||||||||
| Household Income | <$10,000 | 24.3 (1.3) |
24.8 (1.6) |
30.1 (2.7) |
26.3 (1.4) |
5.0 (3.0) |
6.5 (1.9) |
--- | 7.5 (1.7) |
| $10,000 - $14,999 | 18.3 (1.3) |
20.0 (1.8) |
16.9 (1.5) |
19.1 (1.3) |
4.6 (1.6) |
15.9 (4.1) |
--- | 10.8 (2.3) |
|
| $15,000 - $24,999 | 23.1 (1.2) |
23.2 (1.7) |
23.5 (1.8) |
23.3 (1.3) |
13.9 (2.3) |
29.6 (4.2) |
--- | 21.6 (2.5) |
|
| $25,000 - $34,999 | 13.7 (1.0) |
14.3 (1.3) |
11.4 (1.2) |
13.5 (1.1) |
21.3 (4.7) |
11.7 (2.6) |
--- | 15.7 (2.5) |
|
| $35,000 - $49,999 | 10.4 (1.0) |
9.3 (1.1) |
8.7 (1.3) |
9.1 (4.1) |
23.7 (2.9) |
21.3 (5.6) |
--- | 21.0 (3.5) |
|
| $50,000 and over | 10.2 (1.1) |
8.4 (1.2) |
9.4 (1.9) |
8.7 (1.2) |
31.7 (4.2) |
14.9 (3.5) |
--- | 23.5 (3.0) |
|
| TOTAL | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | --- | 100 | |
| Total | Setting^ | Census^^ Families | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||
| No Services | Services | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care< | ||||