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7. Children’s Relationships to Caregivers and Peers and Their Expectations for the Future
Children’s descriptions of their lives provide insight into how they perceive their experiences, which can help inform supportive and stress-reducing interventions. Children have reported that the experience of being removed from their families can be a very difficult time for them (Johnson, Yoken, & Voss, 1995). Although most children whose families undergo an investigation related to child abuse and neglect are not removed, understanding the experience of maltreated children has broad importance. Children’s perceptions of important people in their lives, experiences in placement, school engagement, and spirituality may provide important insights into the world of children involved with CWS. Advocates routinely recommend that we understand the child welfare world through the eyes of the child (e.g., Woodhouse, 1995). This chapter provides a child’s-eye view of caregivers, placement experiences, protective factors, and hopes for the future.
7.1 Children’s Relationships to Caregivers
Whether children are at home or in foster care, the quality of the relationship with the caregiver is important. Evidence from numerous studies indicates that the relationship a child has with his or her caregivers contributes to both prosocial and problematic behaviors, an important aspect of child well-being (Anderson et al., 1999; Canter, 1982; Carlo et al., 1999; Heimer & DeCoster, 1999; Kerr, 2000, Sanner & Ellickson, 1996). The NSCAW survey obtains children’s responses to questions about relatedness and closeness to their caregivers as well as specific activities children and caregivers did together. The relatedness and closeness constructs differ in the following way. Relatedness focuses on specific caregiver behaviors that demonstrate interest and engagement in the child’s life. Closeness refers to the child’s perception of the caregiver’s emotional attachment to the child. Comparisons by service setting and race are presented. Where possible, we have compared NSCAW children with representative samples of youths.
7.1.1 Relatedness to Caregiver
Items from the Rochester Assessment Package for Schools–Student (RAPS) Relatedness scale (Connell, 1991; Lynch & Cicchetti, 1991) were used to measure relatedness to the caregiver for children aged 11 to 15 years. Relatedness includes how the child feels with the caregiver, the quality of involvement with the caregiver, the extent to which the child feels controlled by the caregiver, and the child’s perception of clear caregiver expectations for behavior (Connell, 1991). A mean score was created to account for differences that resulted because not all respondents answered questions with regard to a secondary caregiver. Relatedness scores range from 1 (most negative view of caregivers) to 4 (most positive view of caregivers). The overall mean score of 3.3 suggests that children generally report a sense of relatedness to their caregivers. No significant differences in relatedness to the caregivers exist between placement types or by race/ethnicity of the child (Table 7-1).
| TOTAL | Setting | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL Out-of-Home ^ | |||
| Mean(SE) | |||||||||
| Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 3.3 (.1) |
3.4 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.4 (.1) |
2.8 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
| White | 3.3 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.4 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
3.1 (.2) |
3.3 (.1) |
|
| Hispanic | 3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.2) |
2.9 (.2) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.5 (.1) |
3.5 (.2) |
--- | 3.2 (.1) |
|
| Other | 3.2 (.1) |
3.2 (.2) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
--- | --- | 3.3 (.2) |
|
| TOTAL | 3.3 (<.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.3 (<.1) |
3.3 (<.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.4 (.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
3.3 (.1) |
|
Multivariate analyses confirm these bivariate findings. When relatedness to the caregiver is examined, controlling for association of gender, race/ethnicity, and service setting, linear regression analysis indicates no significant differences.
7.1.2 Closeness to Caregiver
Four questions from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) (Carolina Population Center, 2001) ask children how close they feel to their primary and secondary caregivers and how much they think their caregiver cares about them. The questions were summed to create a closeness–to-caregiver score, ranging from 1 to 5, with higher scores indicating a higher level of closeness. No significant differences in closeness to the caregiver were found between in-home or out-of-home setting, within in-home or out-of-home settings, or by race/ethnicity of the child (Table 7-2).
When closeness to the caregiver is examined, controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, and service setting, one significant difference emerges in the multivariate analysis. Children in foster care feel significantly less close to their caregiver compared with children living at home and not receiving services (Table 7-3).
7.1.3 Activities with Caregivers
Other questions taken from the Add Health survey concerned joint activities in which the child and caregiver participated within the past 4 weeks. Children could endorse 10 possible activities, such as shopping, discussing dating, working on a school project, attending a religious service, or playing sports together.
| TOTAL | Setting | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL Out-of-Home ^ | |||
| Mean/ (SE) | |||||||||
| Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 4.4 (.1) |
4.4 (.2) |
4.5 (.1) |
4.5 (.1) |
3.9 (.4) |
4.2 (.1) |
2.8 (.5) |
4.0 (.2) |
| White | 4.3 (.1) |
4.3 (.1) |
4.5 (.1) |
4.3 (.1) |
3.8 (.2) |
4.0 (.1) |
4.0 (.2) |
4.0 (.1) |
|
| Hispanic | 4.2 (.2) |
4.2 (.3) |
4.1 (.1) |
4.2 (.2) |
4.4 (.2) |
4.7 (.1) |
--- | 4.4 (.2) |
|
| Other | 4.5 (.1) |
4.6 (.1) |
4.4 (.2) |
4.5 (.1) |
4.2 (.3) |
--- | --- | 4.4 (.2) |
|
| TOTAL | 4.3 (.1) |
4.3 (.1) |
4.4 (.1) |
4.3 (.1) |
3.9 (.2) |
4.2 (.1) |
3.8 (.2) |
4.1 (.1) |
|
| Beta Coefficient (SE) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Gender | Female | (reference group) |
| Male | .23 (.10) | |
| Child Setting/ Services | No Services | (reference group) |
| Services | .07 (.11) | |
| Foster home | -.50 (.18)* | |
| Kinship care | -.16 (.16) | |
| Group home | -.58 (.26) | |
| Race/Ethnicity | White | (reference group) |
| African American | .10 (.12) | |
| Hispanic | -.08 (.23) | |
| Other | .24 (.13) | |
|
Multiple R2 is .05. |
Each of the 10 activity questions was examined individually. One significant difference exists between in-home and out-of-home children, with children living in the home reporting that they talk to their secondary caregiver significantly more frequently than children living out of the home. Comparison data were available from the 11- to 15-year-olds in the Wave 1 Add Health public use sample (unweighted n = 3,306) collected from September 1994 to December 1995. (For complete information on Add Health, see http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/Add Health.)
Compared with children in the Add Health sample, children involved in CWS appear to engage in some activities with their primary caregiver more frequently than youths in the general population; these activities include playing sports, attending an event, working on a school project, and talking about other school issues. Children involved with CWS also appear to be more likely to go shopping, talk about a personal problem, and work on a school project with their secondary caregiver. Because standard errors are not available for the Add Health public use sample, the responses of the NSCAW and Add Health samples could not be compared more precisely (Table 7-4).
“Yes” responses for the nine items that show positive involvement between youths and caregivers were summed to create a caregiver involvement index. (The question asking about having a serious argument was omitted from the score.) Children involved with CWS report engaging in an average of five of the nine activities with the primary caregiver and slightly fewer with the secondary caregiver (3.7). The number of activities engaged in by children living in the home and children placed out of the home did not differ significantly.
7.1.4 Discussion
Taken together, these findings suggest that children involved with CWS generally have close relationships with their caregivers and engage in a variety of positive activities with them. Furthermore, these youths do not appear to be greatly different than a general sample of American youths in terms of the activities they engage in with their caregivers. Children involved with CWS appear different from children in a general sample of youths in a few ways: they appear to talk more with both their primary and secondary caregivers about school-related problems; play sports or go shopping with their caregivers; and talk more with caregivers about personal problems. Because standard errors are unavailable, differences from the Add Health sample are discussed if there is a difference of 10 or more percentage points between the NSCAW sample and the comparison sample. Although this seems somewhat counterintuitive, it is possible that youngsters in CWS need or receive more guidance from their caregivers than a general population sample of adolescents. Youths without the difficult life circumstances that bring children into contact with CWS services may be more likely to seek support from friends or other adult mentors and not evoke as much parental involvement.
7.2 Peer Relations, School Engagement, and Protective Factors
This section presents information on risk and protective factors outside of the family, including peers, school, religious participation, and relationships with caring adults. A growing body of research documents the influence of each of these areas on development. For instance, peer relationships have been associated with antisocial behaviors ranging from substance abuse to criminal activity (Jessor et al., 1995). Deficits in peer relationships may place children at greater risk for interpersonal and intrapsychic distress and school failure (Lewin, Davis, & Hops, 1999). Accordingly, peer relationships are examined in this chapter.
School difficulties are well outlined in the child welfare literature, particularly for children placed outside of the home. Retrospective studies with adults who have grown up in CWS frequently report negative or inadequate educational experiences while in care (Barth, 1990; Festinger, 1983). Ample evidence exists of poor school performance (Cook, 1997; Courtney et al., 1998), frequent disruptions in school placements (Webster, Barth, & Needell, 2001), and high levels of participation in special education services (Goerge et al., 1992). Yet little is known about precursors of school achievement, such as school engagement (Catalano & Hawkins, 1987). School engagement refers to the sense of importance attached to participating in academic pursuits and the perception that such participation is welcome and will be rewarded. NSCAW data related to school engagement are presented here.
| Question | Percent(SE) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Add Health^ | NSCAW | ||||
| TOTAL | Total In Home | Total Out of Home | |||
| Primary Caregiver | Shopping | 73 | 77.6 (2.4) |
79.3 (2.4) |
66.9 (5.5) |
| Played sport | 9 | 26.0 (2.7) |
26.9 (2.9) |
20.1 (4.0) |
|
| Attended religious service | 38 | 41.0 (3.3) |
40.4 (3.6) |
44.8 (6.0) |
|
| Talked about dating | 46 | 45.9 (3.0) |
46.9 (3.5) |
39.3 (5.2) |
|
| Attended event | 26 | 42.3 (2.5) |
42.7 (2.8) |
40.3 (5.7) |
|
| Talked about personal problems | 38 | 53.7 (3.4) |
54.2 (3.9) |
50.7 (5.1) |
|
| Had serious argument about child's behavior | 33 | 31.3 (3.0) |
32.7 (3.4) |
22.4 (4.2) |
|
| Talked about school | 62 | 70.7 (2.9) |
71.2 (3.4) |
67.7 (5.3) |
|
| Worked on school project | 13 | 34.9 (3.3) |
35.9 (3.6) |
28.2 (5.4) |
|
| Talked about other school things | 51 | 66.8 (4.0) |
68.1 (4.3) |
58.4 (6.0) |
|
| Secondary Caregiver | Shopping | 27 | 50.0 (3.9) |
51.0 (4.6) |
44.0 (8.3) |
| Played sport | 32 | 31.8 (3.7) |
33.3 (4.3) |
22.5 (5.9) |
|
| Attended religious service | 31 | 26.7 (3.3) |
25.6 (3.7) |
33.5 (8.2) |
|
| Talked about dating | 27 | 33.3 (4.4) |
35.4 (5.0) |
19.8 (4.9) |
|
| Attended event | 24 | 32.2 (3.1) |
30.6 (3.5) |
41.5 (8.9) |
|
| Talked about personal problems | 19 | 33.3 (4.6) |
33.8 (5.0) |
30.0 (6.7) |
|
| Had serious argument about child’s behavior | 25 | 28.0 (4.2) |
30.0 (4.7) |
15.5 (5.2) |
|
| Talked about school | 51 | 57.5 (3.6) |
57.9 (4.0) |
55.0 (7.5) |
|
| Worked on school project | 11 | 25.0 (3.0) |
24.7 (3.2) |
26.9 (7.7) |
|
| Talked about other school things | 44 | 47.7 (4.0) |
47.3 (4.3) |
50.5 (7.6) |
|
A variety of protective factors have been associated with positive outcomes for children growing up in high-risk situations. Two such factors are the presence of caring adults and religious participation (Rutter, 1987; Seidman, Mosher, & Aral, 1994: Werner & Smith, 1982). Findings about caring adults and religious participation are also presented in this section.
7.2.1 Peer Relations at School
Peer relationships at school for children 5 and older were measured using a modification of the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction scale (Asher & Wheeler, 1985). Items ask how true various statements are, such as “It’s easy for me to make new friends at school,” “It’s hard for me to get kids in school to like me,” and “I don’t have anyone to play with at school.” Answer categories for children from 5 to 7 years old were yes, sometimes, and no. Answer categories for children over 8 years old were never, hardly ever, sometimes, most of the time, and always. A mean score was calculated, after recoding, so that higher scores reflect more loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Possible scores range from 1 to 3 for 5- to 7-year-olds and 1 to 5 for children aged 8 years and older.
Children aged 5 to 7 years report a mean score of 1.5, which indicates some dissatisfaction with peer relationships. Only one difference was found in the bivariate analysis. African American children living in out-of-home care report more loneliness and social dissatisfaction than Hispanic children living in out-of-home care (Table 7-5). However, no significant differences were found in the multivariate models.
| TOTAL | Setting | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL^ Out-of-Home | |||
| Mean/ (SE) | |||||||||
| Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 1.5 (0.03) |
1.5 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.04) |
1.8 (0.2) |
1.7 (0.1) |
--- | 1.7 a (0.1) |
| White | 1.5 (0.04) |
1.4 (0.03) |
1.7 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.1) |
1.3 (0.1) |
--- | 1.4 (0.1) |
|
| Hispanic | 1.5 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.1) |
1.6 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.1) |
--- | 1.3 (0.1) |
--- | 1.2 (0.1) |
|
| Other | 1.6 (0.1) |
1.6 (0.1) |
1.5 (0.1) |
1.6 (0.1) |
--- | --- | --- | --- | |
| TOTAL | 1.5 (0.02) |
1.4 (0.02) |
1.6 (0.06) |
1.5 (0.03) |
1.6 (0.1) |
1.4 (0.1) |
--- | 1.5 (0.03) |
|
|
|
Children aged 8 to 15 years had a mean score of 2.0, indicating that they are rarely lonely or dissatisfied with their peer relationships. But 8- to 10-year-olds are significantly less satisfied with their peer relationships than children aged 11 and older. This difference in peer satisfaction by age also exists for children remaining in the home, with 8- to 10-year-olds reporting less peer relationship satisfaction than older children (Table 7-6).
| TOTAL | Setting | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL^ Out-of-Home | |||
| Mean/ (SE) | |||||||||
| Age | 8-10 | 2.1 a (0.04) |
2.1 (0.1) |
2.2 (0.1) |
2.1 b (0.1) |
2.0 (0.1) |
2.3 (0.2) |
2.2 (0.6) |
2.2 (0.1) |
| 11+ | 1.9 (0.04) |
1.9 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
2.4 (0.3) |
2.0 (0.1) |
|
| Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 1.9 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
2.0 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
1.9 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.3) |
2.3 (0.2) |
2.0 (0.1) |
| White | 2.1 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.2) |
2.4 (0.4) |
2.1 (0.1) |
|
| Hispanic | 2.1 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.1) |
2.0 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.1) |
1.7 (0.2) |
2.0 (0.1) |
--- | 1.9 (0.2) |
|
| Other | 2.1 (0.1) |
2.2 (0.1) |
1.7 (0.2) |
2.1 (0.1) |
1.8 (0.1) |
2.0 (0.2) |
2.2 (0.1) |
2.2 (0.2) |
|
| TOTAL | 2.0 (0.03) |
2.0 (0.1) |
2.0 (0.04) |
2.0 (0.04) |
2.0 (0.1) |
2.1 (0.2) |
2.4 (0.3) |
2.1 (0.1) |
|
|
a Scores of 8- to 10-year-olds are higher than for children aged 11 and over (t = 3.6, p<.001). (back) |
Regression analysis confirmed the bivariate findings. When controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, CWS setting, and age, 8- to 10-year-olds report significantly less satisfaction with peer relationships. No other significant differences were present in the multivariate models.
In sum, children in CWS do not report high levels of loneliness or dissatisfaction with their peers, at least at baseline. The ability to interact positively with peers is a strength that may possibly be used to combat the many difficulties that children involved with CWS face. Interventions that encourage peer support networks, help children in placement maintain contact with friends, and promote prosocial peer involvement may be particularly important to this population. Younger children reporting less satisfaction with their peers may need assistance in creating and maintaining supportive peer networks.
7.2.2 School Engagement and Problem Behavior
NSCAW asked all children over the age of 6 a series of questions about their involvement in school. Children were asked how often they enjoyed being in school, completed their homework, tried to do their best work, found classes interesting, listened carefully in class, and got along with teachers and other students. Other items asked about indicators of problems in school, like being sent to the office and having to stay after school. Following factor analysis, seven items were used to create the school engagement scale. The items retained in the scale included how often the child enjoys being in school, tried to do his or her best, finds classes interesting, gets along with teachers, gets along with other students, listens carefully, and completes homework. The scale ranges from 1 to 4, with higher scores indicating higher school engagement. The mean score for the whole sample was 3.13. Table 7-7 presents a comparison of mean school engagement scores by age, race/ethnicity, and service setting and demonstrates that there are few differences in children’s levels of reported school engagement. The mean score is 3 or higher for all categories of children considered. The only bivariate difference is by gender; boys had slightly lower school engagement scores than girls, which is generally found in such comparisons.
| TOTAL | Setting | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In-Home | Out-of-Home | ||||||||
| No Services | Services | TOTAL In-Home | Foster Care | Kinship Foster Care | Group Care | TOTAL Out-of-Home | |||
| Mean/ (SE) | |||||||||
| Age | 6-10 | 3.2 (<.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.2 (<.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
3.1 (.2) |
2.9 (.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
| 11+ | 3.0 (<.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (<.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.0 (.2) |
3.0 (.1) |
|
| Race/ Ethnicity | African American | 3.1 (<.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
3.2 (<.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
2.9 (.2) |
2.8 (.1) |
2.9 (.1) |
| White | 3.1 (<.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.3 (.2) |
3.0 (.2) |
3.1 (.1) |
|
| Hispanic | 3.2 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
2.8 (.2) |
3.2 (.1) |
2.8 (.1) |
2.9 (.1) |
|
| Other | 3.1 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.2 (.1) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.3 (.2) |
2.9 (.2) |
2.9 (.3) |
3.0 (.1) |
|
| TOTAL | 3.1 (<.1) |
3.2 (<.1) |
3.1 (<.1) |
3.1 (<.1) |
3.0 (.07) |
3.1 (.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
3.0 (.1) |
|
Multivariate analyses were performed to test the robustness of the bivariate findings. Table 7-8 presents the results of multiple regression analyses predicting the level of school engagement by age, race/ethnicity, gender, and placement type. Two models are contained in this table. The first considers all possible placement types; the second divides children into in-home and out-of-home settings. As seen in Table 7-8, gender remains the only variable significantly associated with school engagement in both models.
Additional items that did not load on the school engagement factor or cluster together as a scale, but that appear important at face value, were also compared for differences in placement type. Questions asking how often children found schoolwork difficult, how often they were sent to the principal’s office or had to stay after school because of behavior problems, and how often they failed to complete school assignments were examined. Table 7-9 presents percentages of children in each comparison group reporting that they “sometimes or often” have difficulty in these areas.
| Model 1 Beta Coefficient (SE) |
Model 2 Beta Coefficient (SE) |
||
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 6-10 | .71 (.40) | .71 (.40) |
| 11 years and older | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Gender | Female | Reference group | Reference group |
| Malea | -1.13 (.30) | -1.18 (.30) | |
| Race/ Ethnicity | White | Reference group | Reference group |
| African American | .10 (.42) | .15 (.40) | |
| Hispanic | .31 (.73) | .34 (.70) | |
| Other | .06 (.73) | .04 (.70) | |
| Child Setting/ Services | No Services | Reference group | Reference group |
| Services | -.57 (.38) | -.50 (.60) | |
| Foster home | -.90 (.50) | N/A | |
| Kin Care | -.64 (.93) | N/A | |
| Group Home | -1.07 (.97) | N/A | |
|
Model 1: Multiple R2 is .03. Model 2: Multiple R2 is .03. |
In bivariate comparisons, differences were found between age groups for each of these variables. Children who are 11 years of age and older report more difficulties in each area than younger children. One significant gender difference was noted with males reporting that they are sent to the office or stay after school because of disciplinary problems more often than females. Males also tend (p < .05) to have more difficulty with homework completion. Contrary to our expectations—and the previous findings on school engagement—males tend (p < .05) to be less likely than females to report trouble doing schoolwork.
These variables were coded into two categories, never and sometimes or often, to allow for logistic regression analysis. Two models were considered: one including all possible placement types and the second comparing children by in-home and out-of-home placement. Table 7-10 presents these results.
Age is significantly associated with each of the three school difficulties in both models. Older children report not completing assignments, having disciplinary problems, and finding schoolwork too hard. In addition, males report having discipline problems and not completing assignments more often than females. Finally, Hispanic children reported finding work too hard less often than White children. Service setting has no pattern of covariation with these school problem indicators.
| Finds Work Difficult Sometimes/Often |
To the Office or After School Discipline Sometimes/Often |
Failed Homework Completion Sometimes/Often |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Percent / (SE) | ||||
| Total | 79.3 (1.8) | 28.9 (1.9) | 67.8 (2.5) | |
| Age | 6–10 | 73.1 (2.3) | 22.6 (2.2) | 60.5 (3.7) |
| 11 years and older | 86.5 (2.1) a | 36.9 (2.9) b | 76.2 (3.2) c | |
| Gender | Female | 82.6 (2.8) | 19.6 (2.0) d | 64.5 (3.1) |
| Male | 75.8 (1.9) | 39.4 (2.9) | 71.5 (2.9) | |
| Race/Ethnicity | White | 81.8 (2.6) | 30.3 (2.7) | 66.9 (3.5) |
| African American | 80.6 (3.6) | 31.5 (4.4) | 69.4 (4.0) | |
| Hispanic | 68.0 (4.5) | 21.6 (4.1) | 66.5 (6.9) | |
| Other | 82.7 (6.5) | 28.7 (7.2) | 68.5 (7.2) | |
| Child Setting/Services | No CWS | 79.2 (2.8) | 27.4(3.8) | 67.2 (3.1) |
| CWS | 79.7 (3.2) | 33.0 (4.1) | 69.7 (3.7) | |
| Foster home | 74.5 (5.5) | 21.1 (3.8) | 69.3 (5.6) | |
| Kinship Care | 87.4 (3.8) | 27.5 (5.2) | 70.7 (6.2) | |
| Group Home | 75.0 (14.4) | 45.4 (12.4) | 60.1 (13.8) | |
| Total In-Home | 79.4 (1.5) | 28.9 (2.1) | 67.9 (2.7) | |
| Total Out of Home | 78.7 (3.7) | 29.3 (3.2) | 67.7 (4.8) | |
|
aOlder children are significantly more likely to have reported finding schoolwork difficult (X2 = 21.3, df = 1, p<.001). (back) bOlder children are significantly more likely to have reported that they often or sometimes had to go to the office or stay after school for disciplinary problems (X2 = 16.9, df = 1, p<.001). (back) cOlder children are significantly more likely to have reported that they sometimes or often failed to complete homework assignments (X2 = 8.52, df = 1, p<.01). (back) |
These findings represent a baseline measurement of school engagement. The differences between males and females suggest that males should be targeted early with supportive educational interventions and that older children in CWS may be especially vulnerable to school difficulties. Future data collection will enable investigators to examine changes in levels of school engagement over time and, perhaps, as associated with services received.
7.2.3 Protective Factors: Caring Adults and Religious Participation
In the NSCAW survey, all children aged 11 and older were asked seven questions about protective influences in their lives. Five of these questions focused on caring adults and two on religious salience and participation. Table 7-11 compares percentages, by race/ethnicity and child setting, of children saying “yes” to the presence of the particular type of person mentioned. (These items were analyzed separately because they did not coalesce into a reliable scale.)
| Finds Work Difficult Model 1 |
Finds Work Difficult Model 2 |
To the Office or After–School Discipline Model 1 |
To the Office or After–School Discipline Model 2 |
Homework Completion Model 1 |
Homework Completion Model 2 |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odd Ratio/ (95% CI) | |||||||
| Age a | 6-10 | .43 (.28-.65) |
.44 (.29-.67) |
.44 (.31-.62) |
.42 (.30-.60) |
.45 (.28-.72) |
.46 (.29-.74) |
| 11-15 | (reference group) | ||||||
| Gender b | Female | (reference group) | |||||
| Male | .72 (.46-1.13) |
.69 (.43-1.08) |
2.85 (2.0-4.0) |
2.94 (2.08-4.16) |
1.48 (1.09-2.00) |
1.52 (1.13-2.06) |
|
| Race/Ethnicity | White | (reference group) | |||||
| African American | .85 (.46-1.56) |
.91 (.48-1.69) |
1.19 (.77 –1.84) |
1.15 (.73-1.82) |
1.22 (.74-2.01) |
1.18 (.74-1.87) |
|
| Hispanic c | .43 (.28-.68) |
.45 (.29-.71) |
.79 (.46-1.35) |
.77 (.45-1.31) |
1.12 (.57-2.19) |
1.10 (.57-2.15) |
|
| Other | 1.17 (.38-3.61) |
1.2 (.4-3.80) |
1.12 (.51-2.46) |
1.10 (.51-2.39) |
1.29 (.59-2.82) |
1.23 (.57-2.64) |
|
| Child Service Setting | No Services | (reference group) | N/A | (reference group) | N/A | (reference group) | N/A |
| Services | .98 (.59-1.64) |
N/A | 1.18 (.74 –1.89) |
N/A | 1.02 (.70-1.48) |
N/A | |
| Foster Home | .72 (.39-1.30) |
N/A | .65 (.37 –1.13) |
N/A | 1.11 (.64-1.95) |
N/A | |
| Kinship Care | 1.54 (.75-3.19) |
N/A | 1.01 (.57-1.76) |
N/A | 1.20 (.59-2.42) |
N/A | |
| Group Home | .60 (.14-2.50) |
N/A | 1.57 (.61-4.03) |
N/A | .56 (.19-1.64) |
N/A | |
| Total In-home | N/A | (reference group) | N/A | (reference group) | N/A | (reference group) | |
| Total Out-of-Home | N/A | .83 (.52-1.30) |
N/A | .93 (.65-1.35) |
N/A | .96 (.57-1.6) |
|
| R2 for each model | R2=.05 | R2=.05 | R2=.08 | R2=.08 | R2=.04 | R2=.04 | |
|
a Significant in both models for all variables. Older children reported more difficulties than younger children (p≤.001). (back) b Significant in both models for discipline and homework completion problems. Males reported more difficulties in these areas than females (p≤.001). (back) |
| Has an Adult to Turn To | Can Go to Parent with Problems | Can Go to Relative with Problems | Adult Outside of Family Provided Encouragement | Adult Made a Difference in Child’s Life | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Percent/ (SE) | ||||||
| Total | 94.5 (1.4) |
94.0 (1.6) |
82.9 (2.1) |
90.6 (1.9) |
82.3 (2.5) |
|
| Race/ Ethnicity | White | 94.2 (2.5) |
95.2 (1.1) |
84.4 (2.7) |
91.8 (2.5) |
82.8 (3.4) |
| African American | 92.5 (2.5) |
95.3 (2.5) |
80.3 (4.8) |
92.5 (2.3) |
79.9 (3.5) |
|
| Hispanic | 98.4 (.66) |
90.5 (4.5) |
80.3 (4.6) |
86.8 (5.1) |
86.7 (5.6) |
|
| Other | 94.6 (2.9) |
87.2 (7.7) |
89.6 (4.4) |
81.5 (7.0) |
82.3 (9.6) |
|
| Child Setting/ Services | No Services | 93.4 (2.2) |
93.5 (2.5) |
83.4 (2.7) |
89.3 (2.8) |
81.1 (3.6) |
| Services | 96.4 (1.1) |
94.6 (1.4) |
82.6 (3.6) |
91.8 (2.4) |
82.9 (4.3) |
|
| Foster home | 98.0 (1.4) |
92.2 (4.4) |
79.9 (5.7) |
94.6 (2.8) |
81.3 (5.9) |
|
| Kinship Care | 95.8 (2.2) |
95.9 (2.4) |
85.2 (5.8) |
93.8 (3.5) |
87.0 (6.3) |
|
| Group Home | 98.1 (1.3) |
96.1 (2.3) |
69.0 (9.9) |
92.1 (5.0) |
96.0 (2.2) |
|
| Total In-Home | 94.3 (1.6) |
93.9 (1.9) |
82.9 (2.1) |
90.8 (2.1) |
81.6 (2.8) |
|
| Total Out-of-Home | 95.8 (2.0) |
94.8 (1.6) |
81.1 (3.4) |
93.7 (2.1) |
89.4 (2.9) |
|
Over 80% of children in the sampl