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Chapter Five:  The Families in the Study

This chapter describes the families that participated in the study. The families described in this report were all recruited and interviewed by Fall 2001.  To be eligible to participate in the study, a parent had to be working or in school for 20 hours or more a week, to have at least one child between the ages of one and nine in family child care or cared for by a relative in the relative's home, and have an annual income that made the child eligible for a child care subsidy, under the rules of the state in which the child lived. Finally, families were eligible to participate only if their family child care provider agreed to participate. In all, 642 families participated in the study.

One child in each family was selected as the focus child1; if only one child was in family child care, that child was selected. If more than one child was using family child care, one of them was selected at random. Detailed data were collected on the focus child's child care history and current child care schedule.  In addition, we used this child as the reference child for questions addressed to the parent about her reasons for selecting the provider, among other topics.  Finally, the focus child was the subject of an observation measure that looked closely at the experience and functioning of an individual child in the provider's home.

The chapter begins by describing the characteristics of the families and of the focus child.  It then focuses on the employment patterns of mothers, and spouses or partners when they were present.

Characteristics of Families and Focus Children

Almost all of the families were interviewed two or more times over the course of the study. Below, we present descriptions of the sample at baseline in 2001 and note changes over the course of the study where relevant.

Ethnicity.  More than half (51%) of the parents interviewed2 identified their families as Black Non-Hispanic, 24 percent were White Non-Hispanic, 18 percent were Hispanic, and the remaining 7 percent were Asian, Pacific Islander or multi-racial.3  Almost all (92%) of the mothers were born in the United States and in all but a few families (5%) English was the primary language used in the home.

Household Composition.  Seventy-seven percent of the families were headed by a single parent, in all but six cases this was a mother.  In 60 percent, there was a single mother, with no other adult present; in 1 percent there was a single father with no other adults.  In just under a quarter (23%) of the families, a spouse or partner was also present in the home. The other 16 percent of families had a mother with no spouse or partner present, but with one or more adults living in the home.  The number of adults in the household varied across different ethnic groups; just over one-third (36%) of the Hispanic households contained a single mother and no other adults, compared with almost three-quarters (74%) of the Black households (Exhibit 5-1).  These configurations changed scarcely at all over the life of the study. The proportion of single-parent households with no other adults remained the same; at the same time there was a 3 percent increase in the proportion of households with a spouse or partner and a corresponding decrease in the proportion of households with a single mother and one or more other adults.

More than one quarter (27%) of the families had only one child under age 18 in the home; 40 percent had two children and the remaining 33 percent had three or more children (Exhibit 5-2).  Just under half (46%) of the households contained three or fewer people; of the remaining 54 percent, over half (29%) contained four persons and the remainder (25%) had five or more persons. White households were smaller than those of other ethnic groups; only 15 percent of the White households contained five or more persons, compared with 35 percent of the Hispanic households and 28 percent of the Black households (Exhibit 5-3). Household size remained remarkably constant over the course of the study.

 

Exhibit 5-1: Adults in the Household
Number of Adults by Ethnicity of Family

	White/ Non-Hispanic %	Black/ Non-Hispanic %	Hispanic %	Other %	All Families %
Single parent, no other adult	56	74	36	55	61
Mother and spouse/ partner	32	12	45	17	23
Mother, no partner, other adult(s)	12	14	19	28	16
Sample size	152	329	119	42	642

Source:  Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-2: Children Under 18 in the Home
Number of Children by Ethnicity of Family

	White/ Non-Hispanic %	Black/ Non-Hispanic %	Hispanic %	Other %	All Families %
1 child	41	19	31	33	27
2 children	40	38	41	43	40
3 or more children	19	43	28	24	33
Sample size	152	329	119	42	642

Source:  Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-3: Household Size
Number of Household Members by Ethnicity of Family

	White/ Non-Hispanic %	Black/ Non-Hispanic %	Hispanic %	Other %	All Families %
2 members	25	12	13	19	16
3 members	30	31	26	31	30
4 members	30	29	26	31	29
5 or more members	15	28	35	19	25
Sample size	152	329	119	42	642

Source:  Parent Interview

 

Mother's Education.  Almost half (44%) of the mothers in the sample had some education beyond high school.  Of these, 4 percent had college degrees another 6 percent had an associate degree, and more than one-third (34%) had a year or more of college.  Seventeen percent had not completed high school; the remainder had a high school diploma (29%) or a GED (10%).

Household Income.  Twenty percent of the families had an annual household income of less than $10,000, almost half (46%) had annual incomes between $10,000 and $20,000, and almost one-quarter (22%) had annual incomes between $20,000 and $30,000.  Less than 10 percent had incomes over $30,000. When household size was considered, 43 percent of all the families had incomes below the 2001 Federal poverty level (FPL). 

At the time of the last interview, the proportion of families with annual incomes below $10,000 remained the same. Among families in the other income categories, there was some small upward movement; 17 percent had incomes over $30,000, 24% had incomes between $20,000 and $30,000, and there was a corresponding reduction in the proportion of families with incomes between $10,000 and $20,000.

Age of the Focus Child. As we noted earlier, although we obtained some information about the child care arrangements of all the children in the family under the age of 13, we selected one child in the family as the focus child. Almost all (97%) the focus children were the biological children of the respondent; 15 were grandchildren and 4 were adopted or foster children.

Of the 642 focus children, 32 percent were between 12 and 36 months of age at the time of the first interview; a larger proportion (38%) were school-age – between the ages of five and nine. The remaining 29 percent were preschoolers (37 – 60 months) at the time of the first interview with the parent. 

Child's Relationship to Provider.  More than one-third (36%) of focus children were related to the adult who provided out-of-home care for them while the mother worked or attended classes.  White families in our sample were less likely than families in other ethnic groups to use relative care (Exhibit 5-4).  A higher proportion (45%) of school-age children were cared for by relatives, compared with 26 percent of children under three years and 35 percent of preschoolers (3 to 5 years). 

 

Exhibit 5-4: Relative Care
Use of Relative Care by Ethnicity of Family

	White/ Non-Hispanic %	Black/ Non-Hispanic %	Hispanic %	Other %	All Families %
Non-relative care	87	54	61	68	64
Relative care	13	46	39	32	36
Sample size	152	329	119	42	642

Source:  Parent Interview

 

Subsidy Status.  At the time of the first interview, 80 percent of the families in the study were receiving a child care subsidy for the focus child.  In the study sample, Black families were most likely and Hispanic families least likely to be receiving a subsidy (90% vs. 50%; Exhibit 5-5).  Two-thirds (66%) of the subsidized families used care provided by a non-relative for the focus child.  More than two-thirds of the children who received subsidies lived in single-parent households with no other adult present.  Families with incomes below 100 percent FPL were more likely to receive a subsidy (86% vs. 72%).

At the last interview, 63 percent of the families were receiving a subsidy and approximately the same proportion used the subsidy to purchase non-relative care.  At this point, 15 percent of the families had switched to center care for the focus child, and families receiving subsidies were just as likely as families without subsidies to be using center care.

 

Exhibit 5-5: Receipt of Subsidy
Receipt of a Child Care Subsidy by Ethnicity of Family

	Family Ethnicity
	White/ Non-Hispanic %	Black/ Non-Hispanic %	Hispanic %	Other %	All Families %
Receives child care subsidy	74	90	50	78	80
Sample size	152	329	119	42	642

Source:  Parent Interview

 

Parents' Employment

In this section of the chapter, we describe the employment patterns and schedules of mothers (and spouses or partners, where they were present) and the hours spent away from the home in work-related and other activities, at the time of the first interview.  We examine whether employment patterns and schedules differed depending on the absence or presence of other adults in the home, as well as the number and ages of children, and the mother's ethnicity.  In addition, the chapter discusses the association of child care by a relative and mothers' non-standard work schedules.  Distributions are shown when there are interesting differences among groups and changes over time are noted.

Mothers' Employment

At the time of the first interview, almost all (92%) of mothers in the study were working at a paid job.  Only a very small percentage (2%) were engaged in unpaid work in return for welfare benefits.  More than a quarter (28%) were engaged in educational activity, most commonly some sort of vocational class (12%), or a college course (12%). Five percent were engaged in Job Club activities or looking for work.  It is clear that there was overlap among these activities, and that some mothers were combining work and educational activities or a search for other jobs.  As Exhibit 5-6a shows, these patterns differed little for single mothers and those with a spouse or other adult in the home, although mothers in homes with another adult (not a spouse) present were twice as likely to be taking college classes as mothers in the other two groups.  Mothers with only one child under 18 were somewhat more likely (92%) to be working at a paid job than mothers with two or more children (86%).

 

Exhibit 5-6a: Employment Status of Mothers at First Interview
Percentage of Mothers Employed, in School or in Training by Household Type

	Single Mother/No Other Adult %	Spouse or Partner Present %	Other Adult(s) Present %	All Households %
Working at a paid job	91.6	90.6	86.9	90.5
Working in return for welfare benefits	2.6	0.8	2.8	2.3
GED classes	5.0	2.3	4.7	4.4
Vocational classes	11.8	9.4	13.1	11.5
College classes	10.0	9.4	20.8	11.7
Looking for work	6.5	3.9	6.5	6.0
Job Club	6.3	3.1	3.7	5.2
Sample size	383	128	107	618

Source:  Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

At the time of the last interview, a smaller proportion (85% vs. 91%) of the mothers were working at a paid job, but proportions engaged in other job-related or educational activities changed little if at all (Exhibit 5-6b).

 

Exhibit 5-6b: Employment Status of Mothers at Last Interview
Percentage of Mothers Employed, in School or in Training by Household Type

	Single Mother/No Other Adult %	Spouse or Partner Present %	Other Adult(s) Present %	All Households %
Working at a paid job	86.8	80.1	83.5	84.6
Working in return for welfare benefits	2.6	1.2	1.1	2.0
GED classes	1.6	3.0	3.3	2.2
Vocational classes	9.6	6.6	12.1	9.2
College classes	9.9	9.6	12.1	10.1
Looking for work	7.8	7.3	12.1	8.3
Job Club	3.9	0.6	3.3	3.0
Sample size	385	166	91	642

Source:  Last Parent Interview

 

Mothers' Work Schedules

More than three-quarters (77%) of the employed mothers had a single full-time job.  Almost two-thirds (65%) worked 30 to 40 hours a week at this job; the remaining 12 percent worked more than 40 hours.  Four percent combined two or more part-time jobs, usually for less than 40 hours a week.  The remainder had a single part-time job (i.e., less than 30 hours a week) (Exhibit 5-7a).

Many of these jobs did not fit a standard nine-to-five schedule.  Almost a quarter (24%) of employed mothers had irregular work schedules; and almost half worked off-hours rather than standard hours.  Mothers with another adult in the home and those with three or more children were more likely to work an off-hours schedule (Exhibits 5-7a, 5-8a and 5-8b).  There was little difference in the use of relative care vs. non-relative care by mothers who worked non-standard hours. (Exhibit 5-9a).

As the companion table shows, the proportion of working mothers with a single full-time job remained constant over time, but increased proportions worked irregular or off-hours schedules or both. There were small decreases in the proportion of parents working a single, part-time job and corresponding increases in the proportions working multiple part-time jobs (Exhibit 5-7b).  Mothers who worked off-hours schedules were more likely, at the time of the last interview, to use relative care or not to use non-parental care of any kind (Exhibit 5-9b).

 

Exhibit 5-7a: Work Schedules (First Interview)
Mothers' Work Schedules by Household Type

		Single Mother/No Other Adult %	Spouse or Partner Present %	Other Adult(s) Present %	All Households %
Single full-time job		77.4	78.5	75.2	77.1
	30-40 hours	67.1	59.5	63.4	64.8
	40+ hours	10.3	19.0	11.8	12.3
Single part-time job		19.1	18.1	20.4	19.0
Multiple part-time jobs		3.4	3.4	4.4	3.6
	30-40 hours total	2.3	1.7	2.2	2.1
	40+ hours total	1.1	1.7	2.2	1.4
Irregular schedule		22.6	25.0	25.3	23.6
Off-hours schedule		47.8	40.0	53.3	47.0
Irregular and off-hours schedule		19.4	23.9	20.6	20.5
Seasonal schedule		6.4	7.8	7.7	6.9
Sample sizea		351	115	93	559a

a Sample is employed mothers only. Source: Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-7b: Work Schedules (Last Interview)
Mothers' Work Schedules by Household Type

		Single Mother/No Other Adult %	Spouse or Partner Present %	Other Adult(s) Present %	All Households %
Single full-time job		76.6	79.8	75.3	77.2
	30-40 hours	62.9	65.9	58.9	63.1
	40+ hours	13.7	14.0	16.4	14.1
Single part-time job		16.4	14.7	15.1	15.8
Multiple part-time jobs		7.0	5.4	9.6	7.0
	< 30 hours total	2.1	2.3	2.7	2.3
	30-40 hours total	1.2	0.8	0.0	0.9
	40+ hours total	3.7	2.3	6.9	3.8
Irregular schedule		36.1	38.4	36.8	36.8
Off-hours schedule		51.1	54.3	57.3	52.8
Irregular and off-hours schedule		26.2	31.5	30.7	28.1
Seasonal schedule		6.4	5.3	8.2	6.4
Sample sizea		334	133	76	543

a Sample is limited to employed mothers.  Sample size figures exclude missing values. Source:  Last Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-8a: Work Schedules (First Interview)
Mothers' Work Schedules by Number of Children Under 18

		One Child %	Two Children %	Three or more %	All Households %
Single full-time job		67.5	88.3	83.2	77.2
	30-40 hours	59.3	65.4	68.5	64.8
	40+ hours	8.3	12.9	14.7	12.3
Single part-time job		25.5	18.0	15.7	19.1
Multiple part-time jobs		7.0	3.7	1.0	3.6
	30-40 hours total	4.8	0.5	0.0	2.1
	40+ hours total	2.1	3.2	1.0	1.4
Irregular schedule		18.6	24.4	26.3	23.6
Off-hours schedule		43.1	46.7	50.3	47.0
Seasonal schedule		5.5	9.4	5.1	6.9
Sample size		145	217	197	559

Source: Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-8b: Work Schedules (Last Interview)
Mothers' Work Schedules by Number of Children Under 18

		One Child %	Two Children %	Three or more %	All Households %
Single full-time job		69.7	77.9	81.7	77.2
	30-40 hours	63.6	62.0	64.0	63.1
	40+ hours	6.1	16.0	17.7	14.1
Single part-time job		18.9	16.9	12.4	15.8
Multiple part-time jobs		11.4	5.2	5.9	7.0
	< 30 hours total	4.6	0.5	2.7	2.3
	30-40 hours total	1.5	0.9	0.5	0.9
	40+ hours total	5.3	3.8	2.7	3.8
Irregular schedule		39.3	34.7	37.4	36.8
Off-hours schedule		46.2	54.9	55.0	52.8
Irregular and off-hours schedule		28.8	27.2	28.6	28.1
Seasonal schedule		6.1	7.4	5.4	6.4
Sample sizea		135	218	190	543

a Sample is limited to employed mothers.  Sample size figures exclude missing values.  Source:  Last Parent Interview Completed

 

Exhibit 5-9a: Work Schedules (First Interview)
Mothers' Work Schedules by Use of Relative Care

		Relative Care %	Non-Relative Care %	All Households %
Single full-time job		80.6	75.6	77.2
	30-40 hours	67.5	63.6	64.8
	40+ hours	13.1	12.0	12.3
Single part-time job		16.8	20.4	19.1
Multiple part-time jobs		2.6	4.1	3.6
	30-40 hours total	0.5	1.9	2.1
	40+ hours total	2.1	2.2	1.4
Irregular schedule		26.1	22.3	23.6
Off-hours schedule		47.6	46.7	47.0
Seasonal schedule		6.9	6.9	6.9
Sample size		191	368	559

Source:  Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-9b: Work Schedules (Last Interview)
Mothers' Work Schedules by Type of Care Useda

		Relative Care %	Non-Relative Care %	Center Care %	Other Care %	All Households %
Single full-time job		78.0	77.2	81.4	62.9	77.2
	30-40 hours	61.3	63.9	73.3	42.9	63.1
	40+ hours	16.8	13.3	8.1	20.0	14.1
Single part-time job		15.7	16.4	11.6	22.9	15.8
Multiple part-time jobs		6.28	6.4	7.0	14.3	7.0
	< 30 hours total	0.5	3.2	0.0	11.4	2.3
	30-40 hours total	1.6	0.0	2.3	0.0	0.9
	40+ hours total	4.2	3.2	4.7	2.9	3.8
Irregular schedule		35.4	40.4	22.1	55.3	36.8
Off-hours schedule		63.4	47.2	39.3	61.1	52.8
Irregular and off-hours schedule		29.8	28.7	16.7	41.7	28.1
Seasonal schedule		4.2	6.3	12.9	2.8	6.4
Sample sizeb		194	225	86	38	543

a “Relative care” and “Non-Relative Care” is limited to care provided in someone else's home.  “Center Care” includes after-school care.  “Other Care” includes care by siblings, non-custodial parents and self -care. b Sample is limited to employed mothers.  Sample size figures exclude missing values. Source:  Last Parent Interview

 

Mothers' Hours Away from Home in Work-Related Activities

Mothers in paid jobs worked an average of 33 hours a week.  If we add together hours spent working at a paid or unpaid job, and in job training or educational activities, mothers spent an average of 38 hours a week outside the home in work-related activities.  (Exhibit 5-10a).  At the last interview, employed mothers spent more hours in paid work, but reduced time spent on other work-related or educational activities, so that, in total, they were spending slightly less time away from the home (Exhibit 5-10b).

 

Exhibit 5-10a: Mothers' Hours Away From Home (First Interview)
Hours per Week in Work-Related Activities by Mother's Ethnicity

		White/ Non-Hispanic	Black/ Non-Hispanic	Hispanic	Other	All Mothers
		Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
Hours per Week	Paid work	32.0	32.8	34.7	24.0	32.7
	Job training	1.2	1.7	1.7	8.7	1.8
	Education	2.3	2.7	2.9	0	2.6
	Unpaid work	0.1	0.6	0.7	0	0.4
	Job search	0.6	0.9	0.4	0	0.7
Total work-related hours		36.3	39.0	40.4	32.6	38.3
Travel Minutes per Day	Minutes from home to providera	11.8	13.4	10.4	12.4	12.5
	Minutes from provider to worka	20.7	26.7	22.7	22.5	24.6
Sample size		172	327	107	7	613

a Only includes parents who take the child to the provider themselves (versus school bus, neighbor, etc.). Source: Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-10b: Mothers' Hours Away From Home (Last Interview)
Hours per Week in Work-Related Activities by Mother's Ethnicity

		White/ Non-Hispanic	Black/ Non-Hispanic	Hispanic	Other	All Mothers
		Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
Hours per Week	Paid work	34.5	37.0	35.7	35.4	36.1
	Job training	1.6	1.9	1.3	2.1	1.7
	Education	1.8	1.6	1.5	2.3	1.7
	Unpaid work	0.0	0.5	0.4	0.0	0.3
	Job search	0.2	0.3	0.0	0.8	0.3
Total work-related hours		32.6	36.4	32.7	32.1	34.5
Travel Minutes per Day	Minutes from home to provider	12.4	15.3	16.5	22.1	14.5
	Minutes from provider to work	35.0	41.6	59.6	84.6	44.7
Sample size		152	329	119	42	642

Source:  Last Parent Interview

 

Stability of Employment

While most of the mothers were employed at the time of the first interview, just over one-third (37%) had worked continuously over the prior twelve-month period, and almost half (49%) had been unemployed at some point in the three months preceding the interview.  On average, mothers in the study had worked eight of the prior twelve months.  Almost half (46%) of Hispanic mothers had worked continuously over the 12-month period compared with 34 percent of Black and White mothers. These patterns changed little over time.

Mothers' Wages

At the beginning of the study, employed mothers earned an average of $8.86 an hour.  This average varied by the mother's educational level as might be expected; mothers who did not complete high school earned an average of $7.65 an hour compared with mothers with a college degree, who earned $9.79 an hour (Exhibit 5-11a).  Mothers who used a relative to care for their child(ren) had a lower hourly wage than those who used an unrelated caregiver (Exhibit 5.12a).  At the last interview, usually two years later, average hourly wages had risen to $10.24, but had risen more sharply for mothers who were college graduates, from $9.79 to $13.52 (Exhibit 5-11b).  Mothers who used a relative to care for their children continued to have a lower hourly wage than those who used an unrelated caregiver or center care (Exhibit 5-12b).

Work-related Benefits

More than one-quarter (26%) of employed mothers reported that they received no benefits from their employer, including paid holidays.  Over half (59%) obtained medical insurance for themselves, and a smaller proportion (47%) obtained medical insurance for their children through their employer.  Just over 40 percent reported that their employers offered life insurance and/or a retirement plan.

 

Exhibit 5-11a: Mothers' Hourly Wages (First Interview)
Mothers' Average Hourly Wage by Education Level

	Did not complete High School	GED	HS Diploma/ License or Certificate	Some Collegea	College Graduate	All Mothers
	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
Hourly Wage	$7.65	$8.02	$8.80	$9.35	$9.79	$8.86
Sample size	80	47	160	191	71	549

a Includes AA degree. Source: Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-11b: Mothers' Hourly Wages (Last Interview)
Mothers' Average Hourly Wage by Education Levela

	Did not complete High School	GED	HS Diploma/License or Certificate	Some Collegeb	College Graduate	All Mothers
	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
Hourly Wage	$8.39	$9.55	$10.21	$10.55	$13.52	$10.24
Sample sizec	71	44	154	236	29	534

a Education level data come from responses to the Wave 1 survey. b Includes AA degree. c Sample limited to employed mothers who answered questions about education level and hourly wage. Source:  Last Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5.12a: Mothers' Hourly Wages (First Interview)
Mothers' Average Hourly Wage by Use of Relative Care

	Relative Care	Non-Relative Care	All Mothers
	Mean	Mean	Mean
Hourly Wage	$8.24	$9.18	$8.86
Sample size	188	361	549

Source:  Wave 1 Parent Interview

 

Exhibit 5-12b: Mothers' Hourly Wages (Last Interview)
Mothers' Average Hourly Wage by Type of Care Useda

	Relative Care	Non-Relative Care	Center Care	Other Care	All Mothers
	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
Hourly Wage	$9.62	$10.56	$11.09	$9.81	$10.26
Sample sizeb	192	224	84	37	537

a “Relative care” and “Non-Relative Care” is limited to care provided in a home.  “Center Care” includes after-school care.  “Other Care” includes care by siblings, non-custodial parents and self -care. b Sample limited to employed mothers who answered questions about education level and hourly wage. Source:  Last Parent Interview

 

Non-Working Mothers

Most of the mothers who were not currently working had held a job in the past.  When asked why they stopped working, 44 percent said that they left work to pursue educational or training opportunities.  Almost one-third (32%) either quit because of difficulties with their job or because they were fired.  Only 12 percent cited problems with child care as the reason they stopped working.

Spouse's or Partner's Employment

One-fifth of the mothers in the sample had a spouse or partner present in the home.  Most (88%) spouses or partners had paid jobs.  They were almost as likely as the mothers in the sample to work non-standard hours.  Two-thirds worked irregular hours.  One-third worked different hours each week, and almost one-third worked different hours day to day.  For more than one-third (36%), working hours were nights and weekends and for 10 percent their work was seasonal.  Employed spouses/partners worked an average of 34 hours in the week before the interview. There was little change over time in patterns of employment for spouses and partners.

Summary of Findings

• A majority of the families in the study were headed by a single female parent; in less than one-quarter of the families a spouse or partner was present. Household configurations changed little over time, although there was a small increase in the proportion of households in which a spouse or partner was present.

• More than one-third of the focus children were related to the adult who provided out-of-home care for them. Minority families and families in which the focus child was of school age were more likely to use care by a relative.

• More than 40 percent of the families had annual household incomes below the 2001 Federal poverty level. The 20 percent with incomes below $10,000 saw little change in income over a two-to-three year period. Others experienced modest income growth.

• By design, most (80%) of the families in the study were receiving a child care subsidy for the focus child when they entered the study. However, only 50 percent of Hispanic families were receiving a subsidy compared with 90 percent of Black families. Subsidy use declined over the course of the study, even though 15 percent of families switched children into center care as they grew older.  The same proportion of families switched to center care, regardless of whether they were receiving a subsidy or not.

• The majority of mothers in the study were working full-time, at a single job, and this pattern held over time.  However, their employment was not stable; the majority had been unemployed at some point in the prior twelve months.

• For the most part, their jobs did not conform to a standard nine-to-five schedule; many work schedules were off-hours or irregular.  The proportion of mothers working off-hours schedules increased over the course of the study.

• Mothers worked an average of 33 hours a week and spent an average of 38 hours a week outside the home in work-related activities. Over time, work hours increased slightly, but reduction in other work-related activities more than compensated for the increase, so that mothers actually were spending fewer hours away from the home at the end of the study.

• Employed spouses or partners faced similar challenges with their schedule, being almost as likely as the mothers in the sample to work non-standard hours. This pattern did not change over time.

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1 While some general questions were asked about day care arrangements for all children, more detailed questions probed the experience of the focus child, and this was the child followed over time and observed in the child care setting. (back)

2 In all but six cases, the person interviewed was the mother, grandmother or female guardian. In those six cases, a male single parent was interviewed. (back)

3 In exhibits, these ethnic categories are labeled as White Non-Hispanic, Black Non-Hispanic, Hispanic, and Other.  In the text, the shorter labels of White, Black, Hispanic and Other are used. (back)

 

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