ACF OPRE: National Study of Child Care of Low-Income Families

Chapter Four: Parents’ Employment Patterns and Schedules

In this chapter, we describe the employment patterns and schedules of mothers (and spouses or partners, where they were present) and the hours spent away from the home in work-related and other activities, at the time of the first interview. We examine whether employment patterns and schedules differed depending on the absence or presence of other adults in the home, as well as the number and ages of children, and the mother’s ethnicity. In addition, the chapter discusses the association of child care by a relative and mothers’ non-standard work schedules. Distributions are shown when there are interesting differences among groups.

Mothers’ Employment

Almost all (91%) of mothers in the study were working at a paid job. Only a very small percentage (<3%) were engaged in unpaid work in return for welfare benefits. More than a quarter (28%) were engaged in educational activity, most commonly some sort of vocational class (12%), or a college course (12%). Eleven percent were engaged in Job Club activities or looking for work. It is clear that there was overlap among these activities, and that some mothers were combining work and educational activities or a search for other jobs. As Exhibit 4.1 shows, these patterns differed little for single mothers and those with a spouse or other adult in the home, although mothers in homes with another adult (not a spouse) present were twice as likely to be taking college classes as mothers in the other two groups. Mothers with only one child under 18 were somewhat more likely (92%) to be working at a paid job than mothers with two or more children (86%).

Exhibit 4-1:

EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF MOTHERS

Percentage of Mothers Employed, in School or in Training by Household Type
	Single Mother/No Other Adult %	Spouse or Partner Present %	Other Adult(s) Present %	All Households %
Working at a paid job	91.6	90.6	86.9	90.5
Working in return for welfare benefits	2.6	0.8	2.8	2.3
GED classes	5.0	2.3	4.7	4.4
Vocational classes	11.8	9.4	13.1	11.5
College classes	10.0	9.4	20.8	11.7
Looking for work	6.5	3.9	6.5	6.0
Job Club (job search assistance)	6.3	3.1	3.7	5.2
Sample size	383	128	107	618

Source: Parent Interview

Mothers’ Work Schedules

More than three-quarters (77%) of the employed mothers had a single full-time job. Almost two-thirds (65%) worked 30 to 40 hours a week at this job; the remaining 12 percent worked more than 40 hours. Four percent combined two or more part-time jobs, usually for less than 40 hours a week. The remainder had a single part-time job (i.e., less than 30 hours a week) (Exhibit 4.2).

Exhibit 4-2:

WORK SCHEDULES

Mothers’ Work Schedules by Household Type
		Single Mother/No Other Adult %	Spouse or Partner Present %	Other Adult(s) Present %	All Households %
Single full-time job		77.4	78.5	75.2	77.1
	30-40 hours	67.1	59.5	63.4	64.8
	40+ hours	10.3	19.0	11.8	12.3
Single part-time job		19.1	18.1	20.4	19.0
Multiple part-time jobs		3.4	3.4	4.4	3.6
	30-40 hours total	2.3	1.7	2.2	2.1
	40+ hours total	1.1	1.7	2.2	1.4
Irregular schedule		22.6	25.0	25.3	23.6
Off-hours schedule		47.8	40.0	53.3	47.0
Irregular and off-hours schedule		19.4	23.9	20.6	20.5
Seasonal schedule		6.4	7.8	7.7	6.9
Sample size		351	115	93	559a

a Sample is employed mothers only.

Source: Parent Interview

Many of these jobs did not fit a standard nine-to-five schedule. Almost a quarter (24%) of employed mothers had irregular work schedules; and almost half worked off-hours rather than standard hours. Mothers with another adult in the home and those with three or more children were more likely to work an off-hours schedule (Exhibits 4-2 and 4-3). Mothers working non-standard hours were somewhat more likely to use relatives as caregivers (Exhibit 4-4).

Mothers’ Hours Away from Home in Work-Related Activities

Mothers in paid jobs worked an average of 33 hours a week. If we add together hours spent working at a paid or unpaid job, and in job training or educational activities, mothers (working and non-working combined) spent an average of 38 hours a week outside the home in work-related activities. (Exhibit 4-5).

Exhibit 4-3:

WORK SCHEDULES

Mothers Work Schedules by Number of Children Under 18
		One Child %	Two Children %	Three or more %	All Households %
Single full-time job		67.5	88.3	83.2	77.2
	30-40 hours	59.3	65.4	68.5	64.8
	40+ hours	8.3	12.9	14.7	12.3
Single part-time job		25.5	18.0	15.7	19.1
Multiple part-time jobs		7.0	3.7	1.0	3.6
	30-40 hours total	4.8	0.5	0.0	2.1
	40+ hours total	2.1	3.2	1.0	1.4
Irregular schedule		18.6	24.4	26.3	23.6
Off-hours schedule		43.1	46.7	50.3	47.0
Seasonal schedule		5.5	9.4	5.1	6.9
Sample size		145	217	197	559

Source: Parent Interview

Exhibit 4-4:

WORK SCHEDULES

Mothers’ Work Schedules by Use of Relative Care
		Relative Care %	Non-Relative Care %	All Households %
Single full-time job		80.6	75.6	77.2
	30-40 hours	67.5	63.6	64.8
	40+ hours	13.1	12.0	12.3
Single part-time job		16.8	20.4	19.1
Multiple part-time jobs		2.6	4.1	3.6
	30-40 hours total	0.5	1.9	2.1
	40+ hours total	2.1	2.2	1.4
Irregular schedule		26.1	22.3	23.6
Off-hours schedule		47.6	46.7	47.0
Seasonal schedule		6.9	6.9	6.9
Sample size		191	368	559

Source: Parent Interview

Exhibit 4-5

MOTHERS’ HOURS AWAY FROM HOME

Hours per Week in Work-Related Activities by Mothers’ Ethnicity
		White/ Non-Hispanic Mean	Black/ Non-Hispanic Mean	Hispanic Mean	Other Mean	All Mothers Mean
Hours per Week	Paid work	32.0	32.8	34.7	24.0	32.7
	Job training	1.2	1.7	1.7	8.7	1.8
	Education	2.3	2.7	2.9	0	2.6
	Unpaid work	0.1	0.6	0.7	0	0.4
	Job search	0.6	0.9	0.4	0	0.7
	Total work-related hours	36.3	39.0	40.4	32.6	38.3
Travel Minutes per Day	Minutes from home to providera	11.8	13.4	10.4	12.4	12.5
Travel Minutes per Day	Minutes from provider to worka	20.7	26.7	22.7	22.5	24.6
Sample size		172	327	107	7	613

a Only includes parents who take the child to the provider themselves (versus school bus, neighbor, etc.)

Source: Parent Interview

Stability of Employment

While most of the mothers were employed at the time of the first interview, just over one-third (37%) had worked continuously over the prior twelve-month period, and almost half (49%) had been unemployed at some point in the three months preceding the interview. On average, mothers in the study had worked eight of the prior twelve months. Almost half (46%) of Hispanic mothers had worked continuously over the 12-month period compared with 34 percent of Black and White mothers.

Mothers’ Wages

Employed mothers earned an average of $8.86 an hour. This average varied by the mother’s educational level as might be expected; mothers who did not complete high school earned an average of $7.65 an hour compared with mothers with a college degree, who earned $9.79 an hour (Exhibit 4-6). Mothers who used a relative to care for their child(ren) had a lower hourly wage than those who used an unrelated caregiver (Exhibit 4-7).

Work-related Benefits

More than one-quarter (26%) of employed mothers reported that they receive no benefits from their employer, including paid holidays. Over half (59%) obtained medical insurance for themselves, and a smaller proportion (47%) obtained medical insurance for their children through their employer. Just over 40 percent reported that their employers offer life insurance and/or a retirement plan.

Exhibit 4-6

MOTHERS’ HOURLY WAGES

Mothers’ Average Hourly Wage by Education Level
	Did not complete High School Mean	GED Mean	HS Diploma/ License or Certificate Mean	Some Collegea Mean	College Graduate Mean	All Mothers Mean
Hourly Wage	$7.65	$8.02	$8.80	$9.35	$9.79	$8.86
Sample size	80	47	160	191	71	549

a Includes AA degree.

Source: Parent Interview

Exhibit 4-7:

MOTHERS HOURLY WAGES

Mothers' Average Hourly Wage by Use of Relative Care
	Relative Care Mean	Non-Relative Care Mean	All Mothers Mean
Hourly Wage	$8.24	$9.18	$8.86
Sample size	188	361	549

Non-Working Mothers

Most of the mothers who were not currently working had held a job in the past. When asked why they stopped working, 44 percent said that they left work to pursue educational or training opportunities. Almost one-third (32%) either quit because of difficulties with their job or because they were fired. Only 12 percent cited problems with child care as the reason they stopped working.

Spouse’s or Partner’s Employment

One-fifth of the mothers in the sample had a spouse or partner present in the home. Most (88%) spouses or partners had paid jobs. They were almost as likely as the mothers in the sample to work non-standard hours. Two-thirds worked irregular hours. One-third worked different hours each week, and almost one-third worked different hours day to day. For more than one-third (36%), working hours were nights and weekends and for 10 percent their work was seasonal. Employed spouses/partners worked an average of 34 hours in the week before the interview.

Summary of Findings

The majority of mothers in the study worked full-time, at a single job. However, their employment was not stable; the majority had been unemployed at some point in the prior twelve months.

For the most part, their jobs did not conform to a standard nine-to-five schedule; many work schedules were off-hours or irregular.

Mothers worked an average of 33 hours a week and spent a average of 38 hours a week outside the home in work-related activities.

Employed spouses or partners faced similar challenges with their schedule, being almost as likely as the mothers in the sample to work non-standard hours.

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