Table of Contents | Previous | Next |
APPENDIX E.VI
| Center-Based Programs | Mixed-Approach Programs | Home-Based Programs | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Child Cognitive and Language Development | ||||||||||||
| Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score | 89.8 | 88.9 | 0.9 | 7.2 | 89.3 | 87.9 | 1.4 | 10.9 | 94.1 | 92.8 | 1.2 | 9.5 |
| Percentage with MDI < 85***d | 26.5 | 36.1 | -9.7 | -20.7 | 36.1 | 38.4 | -2.2 | -4.8 | 20.5 | 22.0 | -1.4 | -3.1 |
| Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score | 83.2 | 81.8 | 1.5 | 9.1 | 82.2 | 78.5 | 3.7** | 22.6 | 84.6 | 83.1 | 1.5 | 9.1 |
| Percentage with PPVT-III < 85*** | 52.4 | 54.7 | -2.3 | -4.5 | 56.0 | 67.7 | -11.6** | -23.3 | 45.6 | 48.6 | -3.0 | -6.1 |
| Child Social-Emotional Development | ||||||||||||
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.9 | 4.7 | 0.2 | 17.4 | 4.7 | 4.4 | 0.3*** | 29.5 | 4.8 | 4.6 | 0.2** | 19.2 |
| Sustained
Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play |
5.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 5.0 | 4.7 | 0.3*** | 30.8 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 10.6 |
| Engagement
of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task |
5.0 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 8.0 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 14.2 | 5.1 | 5.0 | 0.1 | 5.6 |
| Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.4 | 4.3 | 0.1 | 9.1 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 0.0 | 3.5 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 0.1 | 12.0 |
| Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation | 4.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 4.0 | 4.1 | -0.1 | -7.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 | 2.1 |
| Bayley
BRS: Orientation/ Engagement |
3.9 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 9.6 | 3.9 | 3.9 | -0.1 | -9.5 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 0.0 | 3.4 |
| Negativity Toward Parent During Parent- Child Semistructured Play | 1.2 | 1.4 | -0.2** | -27.1 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -15.3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.0 | -6.6 |
| Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.5 | 2.7 | -0.2 | -14.9 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 0.1 | 10.3 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 0.1 | 5.9 |
| Child
Behavior Checklist- Aggressive Behavior |
9.6 | 10.8 | -1.2 | -18.1 | 10.7 | 11.3 | -0.6 | -9.3 | 11.2 | 11.7 | -0.5 | -7.8 |
| Child Health Status | ||||||||||||
| Child's Health Status | 3.9 | 4.1 | -0.2 | -17.1 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 0.0 | 2.3 | 4.0 | 4.0 | -0.0 | -4.0 |
| Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor Health*** | 9.9 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 11.1 | 5.4 | 6.0 | -0.6 | -2.1 | 9.8 | 9.6 | 0.2 | 0.8 |
| Quality of the Home Environment and Parenting: Overall and Physical Environment | ||||||||||||
| Home
Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score |
27.3 | 26.4 | 0.9 | 18.8 | 27.0 | 26.4 | 0.6 | 11.3 | 28.3 | 28.1 | 0.2 | 3.5 |
| HOME Internal Physical Environment | 7.7 | 7.5 | 0.1 | 8.6 | 7.7 | 7.8 | -0.1 | -3.7 | 8.0 | 8.0 | -0.0 | -1.6 |
| Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support | ||||||||||||
| HOME Warmth | 2.6 | 2.4 | 0.1 | 15.4 | 2.4 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 9.3 | 2.7 | 2.7 | -0.0 | -0.8 |
| Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.1 | 4.0 | 0.1 | 8.9 | 4.0 | 3.8 | 0.2** | 20.8 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 0.1** | 15.5 |
| Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.5 | 4.5 | -0.1 | -4.2 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 14.7 | 4.6 | 4.5 | 0.1 | 7.3 |
| Parenting Behavior: Stimulation of Language and Learning | ||||||||||||
| Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime*** | 58.7 | 57.0 | 1.8 | 3.6 | 59.3 | 62.4 | -3.1 | -6.2 | 59.3 | 55.6 | 3.6 | 7.4 |
| Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine* | 67.1 | 66.1 | 1.0 | 2.2 | 67.9 | 66.8 | 1.1 | 2.4 | 72.0 | 71.0 | 1.0 | 2.2 |
| HOME: Support of Language and Learning | 10.7 | 10.5 | 0.3 | 13.0 | 10.3 | 10.1 | 0.2 | 9.2 | 10.9 | 10.7 | 0.2 | 7.0 |
| Parent-Child Play** | 4.6 | 4.3 | 0.2* | 25.7 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 0.2* | 18.1 | 4.4 | 4.4 | -0.1 | -5.5 |
| Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 3.6 | 3.5 | 0.0 | 3.7 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 0.3** | 24.8 | 3.6 | 3.5 | 0.0 | 2.7 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily*** | 57.9 | 50.8 | 7.0 | 14.1 | 59.0 | 45.0 | 14.0*** | 28.0 | 54.5 | 55.7 | -1.2 | -2.4 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime*** | 30.6 | 32.4 | -1.7 | -3.8 | 36.7 | 30.8 | 5.9 | 13.0 | 29.6 | 25.8 | 3.8 | 8.4 |
| Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior | ||||||||||||
| Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play** | 1.2 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 16.2 | 1.2 | 1.4 | -0.2** | -23.8 | 1.2 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -9.4 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.5 | 1.6 | -0.1 | -13.9 | 1.6 | 1.7 | -0.0 | -3.3 | 1.6 | 1.6 | -0.1 | -6.4 |
| Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 1.6 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 4.7 | 1.7 | 1.9 | -0.2 | -16.4 | 1.6 | 1.6 | -0.0 | -3.5 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.8 | 2.7 | 0.1 | 4.3 | 2.8 | 2.9 | -0.1 | -10.8 | 2.5 | 2.6 | -0.1 | -8.7 |
| Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 6.0 | 1.2 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -9.5 |
| HOME Harshness | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 3.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 5.6 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week*** | 51.4 | 61.0 | -9.6 | -19.2 | 46.6 | 57.6 | -10.9** | -21.9 | 44.1 | 49.6 | -5.5 | -10.9 |
| Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies | ||||||||||||
| Percentage
of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly*** |
63.0 | 75.3 | -12.3** | -26.8 | 73.7 | 71.6 | 2.2 | 4.7 | 70.4 | 69.4 | 1.0 | 2.2 |
| Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy*** | 52.0 | 60.6 | -8.6 | -17.2 | 43.9 | 53.5 | -9.6** | -19.2 | 44.9 | 44.5 | 0.4 | 0.8 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only*** | 36.8 | 30.9 | 5.9 | 11.9 | 49.2 | 39.1 | 10.1*** | 20.5 | 45.8 | 45.9 | -0.1 | -0.2 |
| Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies | 3.6 | 3.9 | -0.2 | -14.0 | 3.2 | 3.6 | -0.4*** | -22.6 | 3.3 | 3.3 | -0.0 | -1.8 |
| Parent Physical and Mental Health | ||||||||||||
| Parent's Health Status | 3.5 | 3.5 | -0.0 | -2.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | -0.1 | -5.3 | 3.4 | 3.4 | -0.1 | -5.9 |
| Parenting
Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress |
23.9 | 25.0 | -1.1 | -11.7 | 24.8 | 25.9 | -1.1 | -11.2 | 24.9 | 26.3 | -1.4** | -14.4 |
| PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction | 17.6 | 17.2 | 0.4 | 7.0 | 18.1 | 17.7 | 0.4 | 6.7 | 17.5 | 18.1 | -0.6 | -10.4 |
| Center
for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form) |
7.3 | 7.1 | 0.2 | 2.6 | 7.2 | 7.8 | -0.6 | -8.2 | 7.7 | 7.9 | -0.1 | -1.8 |
| CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms*** | 15.8 | 8.7 | 7.1* | 19.8 | 14.2 | 15.3 | -1.2 | -3.2 | 14.4 | 16.1 | -1.6 | -4.5 |
| Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict | 1.6 | 1.7 | -0.1 | -11.1 | 1.7 | 1.7 | -0.0 | -4.6 | 1.7 | 1.7 | -0.0 | -0.8 |
| Father Presence | ||||||||||||
| Currently Married to Biological Father*** | 28.4 | 29.7 | -1.2 | -2.5 | 34.5 | 35.1 | -0.6 | -1.2 | 38.1 | 40.0 | -1.9 | -3.9 |
| Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent*** | 46.0 | 48.2 | -2.2 | -4.3 | 46.0 | 46.9 | -0.9 | -1.9 | 52.9 | 56.0 | -3.1 | -6.2 |
| Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life*** | 75.9 | 71.9 | 4.0 | 8.9 | 70.6 | 68.7 | 1.9 | 4.3 | 72.9 | 75.7 | -2.8 | -6.3 |
| Continuous
Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** |
71.7 | 68.5 | 3.2 | 6.9 | 64.3 | 66.2 | -1.9 | -4.2 | 67.6 | 72.0 | -4.5 | -9.8 |
| No Biological
Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** |
7.3 | 10.6 | -3.3 | -10.4 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 0.8 | 2.5 | 12.0 | 10.0 | 2.0 | 6.4 |
| Continuous
Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** |
80.8 | 82.7 | -1.9 | -5.3 | 79.4 | 79.0 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 78.9 | 85.9 | -7.0** | -19.4 |
| No Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 1.1 | 1.7 | -0.6 | -5.3 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 12.5 | 2.4 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 9.0 |
| Sample Size | ||||||||||||
| Bayley | 217 | 172 | 389 | 266 | 257 | 523 | 396 | 350 | 746 | |||
| Parent Interview | 254 | 211 | 465 | 351 | 344 | 695 | 502 | 448 | 950 | |||
| Parent-Child Interactions | 227 | 181 | 408 | 251 | 255 | 506 | 396 | 348 | 744 | |||
| SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments,
interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child
interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months
old.
NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Center-Based Programs | Mixed-Approach Programs | Home-Based Programs | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Education/Job Training | ||||||||||||
| Ever in Education or Training***d | 65.1 | 61.5 | 3.6 | 7.2 | 65.1 | 51.3 | 13.8*** | 27.7 | 53.1 | 45.5 | 7.6** | 15.3 |
| Ever in High School*** | 13.1 | 11.6 | 1.5 | 5.2 | 15.1 | 10.6 | 4.6* | 16.0 | 12.6 | 6.8 | 5.7*** | 20.1 |
| Ever in ESL Class*** | 1.5 | 2.7 | -1.3 | -8.9 | 5.0 | 3.3 | 1.7 | 11.9 | 3.4 | 2.4 | 1.0 | 7.2 |
| Ever in Vocational Program*** | 19.3 | 17.9 | 1.5 | 3.9 | 22.7 | 17.6 | 5.1 | 13.6 | 18.2 | 15.7 | 2.5 | 6.6 |
| Average Hours per Week in Education or Training | 5.4 | 5.0 | 0.5 | 7.1 | 4.2 | 3.3 | 0.9* | 14.5 | 4.5 | 3.0 | 1.6*** | 24.3 |
| In Education or Training: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 24.9 | 29.6 | -4.6 | -11.2 | 22.5 | 19.0 | 3.4 | 8.3 | 21.2 | 21.6 | -0.4 | -1.0 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 31.4 | 34.7 | -3.3 | -7.7 | 27.1 | 22.1 | 5.1 | 11.8 | 25.1 | 22.9 | 2.2 | 5.0 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 37.7 | 31.7 | 6.0 | 13.6 | 31.3 | 24.9 | 6.5* | 14.7 | 28.2 | 26.5 | 1.7 | 3.8 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 38.0 | 31.0 | 6.9 | 16.2 | 31.4 | 25.0 | 6.5* | 15.1 | 27.1 | 22.5 | 4.6* | 10.7 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 35.5 | 30.2 | 5.2 | 12.1 | 29.8 | 27.1 | 2.8 | 6.4 | 28.6 | 22.9 | 5.8** | 13.4 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 34.3 | 27.8 | 6.5 | 15.6 | 27.5 | 23.2 | 4.4 | 10.5 | 28.7 | 21.3 | 7.4*** | 17.9 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 31.2 | 28.7 | 2.5 | 6.3 | 26.5 | 23.5 | 3.0 | 7.5 | 23.1 | 17.6 | 5.5** | 13.7 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 29.3 | 28.2 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 27.6 | 20.4 | 7.2* | 18.4 | 24.3 | 15.6 | 8.7*** | 22.1 |
| Have High School Diploma *** | 52.4 | 13.3 | -0.5 | -1.5 | 50.2 | 48.9 | 1.3 | 2.5 | 49.1 | 45.7 | 3.5 | 6.9 |
| Have GED*** | 12.8 | 56.9 | -4.6 | -9.1 | 10.1 | 8.4 | 1.7 | 5.5 | 8.5 | 11.5 | -2.9 | -9.2 |
| Employment | ||||||||||||
| Ever Employed*** | 91.3 | 87.3 | 4.1 | 10.8 | 88.6 | 82.0 | 6.6** | 17.5 | 83.1 | 81.8 | 1.3 | 3.5 |
| Average Hours/Week Employed | 21.6 | 21.3 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 16.8 | 15.6 | 1.2 | 7.9 | 14.8 | 15.1 | -0.3 | -2.0 |
| Employed in: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 53.4 | 49.4 | 4.0 | 8.2 | 35.5 | 35.6 | -0.1 | -0.2 | 33.8 | 36.1 | -2.2 | -4.6 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 59.4 | 54.5 | 4.9 | 9.8 | 45.3 | 41.8 | 3.5 | 7.0 | 38.2 | 42.9 | -4.7 | -9.5 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 63.5 | 58.9 | 4.6 | 9.3 | 52.8 | 50.0 | 2.8 | 5.7 | 46.9 | 50.1 | -3.3 | -6.5 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 66.4 | 63.3 | 3.1 | 6.2 | 56.4 | 52.6 | 3.8 | 7.6 | 51.9 | 51.7 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 71.0 | 66.4 | 4.6 | 9.4 | 60.3 | 55.1 | 5.3 | 10.7 | 57.7 | 58.9 | -1.2 | -2.4 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 71.3 | 66.7 | 4.7 | 9.5 | 62.3 | 55.5 | 6.8 | 13.8 | 61.7 | 58.2 | 3.5 | 7.0 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 64.0 | 64.9 | -0.9 | -1.9 | 61.2 | 53.7 | 7.5* | 15.1 | 57.5 | 55.0 | 2.4 | 4.9 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 70.4 | 67.3 | 3.1 | 6.4 | 67.2 | 56.8 | 10.4** | 21.3 | 55.9 | 59.9 | -4.0 | -8.1 |
| Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education, Training, or Employment) | ||||||||||||
| Ever Employed or in Education/Training*** | 97.7 | 94.6 | 3.1 | 10.1 | 95.6 | 90.1 | 5.5** | 18.2 | 90.5 | 88.9 | 1.6 | 5.4 |
| Average Hours per Week in Any Activity | 28.2 | 26.8 | 1.4 | 8.9 | 21.3 | 19.2 | 2.1 | 13.6 | 19.9 | 18.5 | 1.3 | 8.5 |
| In Activities in: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 68.0 | 67.9 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 51.0 | 48.1 | 3.0 | 5.9 | 47.3 | 48.4 | -1.1 | -2.2 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 78.9 | 72.8 | 6.1 | 12.3 | 61.8 | 54.1 | 7.7** | 15.5 | 53.4 | 55.5 | -2.1 | -4.2 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 83.8 | 76.1 | 7.6* | 16.1 | 70.4 | 63.3 | 7.1* | 14.9 | 62.3 | 62.9 | -0.6 | -1.3 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 86.1 | 75.9 | 10.2** | 21.4 | 71.7 | 64.5 | 7.2* | 15.0 | 65.2 | 61.6 | 3.6 | 7.6 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 85.4 | 78.5 | 6.8 | 14.8 | 73.8 | 67.1 | 6.7* | 14.5 | 69.6 | 67.9 | 1.7 | 3.6 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 88.2 | 76.3 | 12.0** | 25.5 | 74.5 | 65.7 | 8.8** | 18.6 | 72.9 | 66.4 | 6.5** | 13.9 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 81.1 | 76.1 | 5.0 | 10.5 | 71.7 | 64.1 | 7.6* | 16.0 | 66.4 | 62.7 | 3.7 | 7.6 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 84.8 | 77.2 | 7.6 | 16.3 | 77.2 | 65.1 | 12.1*** | 25.9 | 65.2 | 66.6 | -1.4 | -3.1 |
| AFDC/TANF Receipt | ||||||||||||
| Ever Received AFDC/TANF*** | 32.7 | 28.6 | 4.1 | 8.2 | 46.8 | 45.7 | 1.1 | 2.2 | 55.2 | 52.5 | 2.7 | 5.5 |
| Received AFDC/TANF in: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 21.4 | 18.2 | 3.2 | 6.9 | 32.9 | 29.6 | 3.3 | 7.0 | 42.2 | 29.4 | 2.7 | 5.8 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 28.1 | 17.8 | 3.4 | 7.1 | 34.5 | 32.4 | 2.1 | 4.5 | 41.9 | 42.4 | -0.5 | -1.1 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 19.1 | 20.8 | -1.7 | -3.5 | 36.9 | 33.0 | 3.9 | 8.1 | 46.2 | 43.9 | 2.3 | 4.7 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 18.3 | 17.4 | 0.8 | 1.8 | 30.4 | 26.5 | 3.8 | 8.2 | 37.2 | 38.1 | -0.9 | -1.9 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 18.0 | 14.7 | 3.3 | 7.2 | 30.0 | 27.0 | 3.0 | 6.5 | 36.0 | 37.8 | -1.8 | -3.9 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 19.4 | 16.0 | 3.4 | 7.4 | 26.6 | 26.7 | -0.0 | -0.1 | 36.4 | 38.5 | -2.1 | -4.5 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 14.4 | 14.5 | -0.0 | -0.0 | 23.1 | 23.1 | -0.1 | -0.1 | 27.4 | 32.1 | -4.7* | -10.8 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 15.5 | 13.0 | 2.5 | 5.9 | 19.9 | 23.6 | -3.7 | -8.6 | 27.8 | 27.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($) | $908 | $767 | $142 | 3.7 | $2,331 | $2,111 | $220 | 5.7 | $2,676 | $2,834 | -$158 | -4.1 |
| Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits | ||||||||||||
| Ever Received Welfare*** | 63.0 | 62.6 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 66.0 | 64.0 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 72.9 | 70.5 | 2.5 | 5.2 |
| Total Welfare Benefits ($) | $3,963 | $4,478 | -$515 | -6.8 | $5,422 | $5,851 | -$429 | -5.7 | $5,929 | $6,089 | -$160 | -2.1 |
| Ever Received Food Stamps*** | 53.9 | 53.2 | 0.7 | 1.5 | 58.2 | 56.5 | 1.7 | 3.5 | 66.7 | 65.4 | 1.3 | 2.6 |
| Total Food Stamp Benefits ($) | $1,636 | $1,994 | -$358 | -13.2 | $2,152 | $2,023 | $129 | 4.7 | $2,298 | $2,153 | $145 | 5.3 |
| Income/Poverty | ||||||||||||
| Income Above Poverty Level*** | 47.8 | 51.0 | -3.2 | -6.5 | 41.9 | 43.5 | -1.6 | -3.3 | 41.1 | 40.8 | 0.3 | 0.5 |
| Subsequent Births | ||||||||||||
| Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment*** | 15.1 | 18.9 | -3.8 | -8.4 | 24.6 | 30.5 | -5.9 | -13.2 | 26.3 | 28.4 | -2.1 | -4.7 |
| Sample Size | 230 | 204 | 434 | 358 | 354 | 712 | 488 | 453 | 941 | |||
|
SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment. NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Early Implementers | Later Implementers | Incomplete Implementers | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Child Cognitive and Language Development | ||||||||||||
| Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score | 94.1 | 92.0 | 2.2* | 16.7 | 88.2 | 86.0 | 2.2** | 16.9 | 92.1 | 92.1 | -0.1 | -0.4 |
| Percentage
with MDI < 85***d |
24.1 | 27.0 | -5.6 | -11.9 | 36.5 | 43.1 | -6.6 | -14.2 | 23.8 | 25.8 | -2.0 | -4.3 |
| Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score | 86.0 | 84.8 | 1.3 | 7.9 | 78.4 | 75.2 | 3.3* | 20.0 | 84.8 | 83.2 | 1.6 | 9.9 |
| Percentage with PPVT-III < 85*** | 43.1 | 50.5 | -7.5 | -15.0 | 65.4 | 71.2 | -5.8 | -11.7 | 46.6 | 51.9 | -5.3 | -10.6 |
| Child Social-Emotional Development | ||||||||||||
| Engagement of Parent During Parent- Child Semistructured Play | 4.9 | 4.8 | 0.1 | 11.1 | 4.7 | 4.5 | 0.2** | 22.0 | 4.9 | 4.5 | 0.4*** | 36.7 |
| Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 5.1 | 5.0 | 0.1 | 14.3 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 0.1 | 13.3 | 5.0 | 4.8 | 0.2* | 22.0 |
| Engagement of Parent During Parent- Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 5.1 | 5.0 | 0.1 | 7.1 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 5.3 | 5.1 | 4.9 | 0.2 | 17.5 |
| Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.7 | 4.7 | -0.0 | -2.0 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 0.1 | 8.3 | 4.6 | 4.4 | 0.2 | 19.4 |
| Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation | 4.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 | 2.6 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 9.1 | 4.0 | 4.1 | -0.1 | -10.5 |
|
Bayley BRS: Orientation/Engagement |
4.0 | 4.0 | 0.1 | 8.5 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 0.1 | 6.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 0.0 | 0.8 |
| Negativity Toward Parent During Parent- Child Semistructured Play | 1.2 | 1.3 | -0.1** | -17.7 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -9.3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -10.6 |
| Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.8 | 2.9 | -0.0 | -2.3 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 0.2 | 13.6 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 0.0 | 0.3 |
| Child Behavior Checklist-Aggressive Behavior | 11.1 | 11.8 | -0.7 | -11.4 | 10.8 | 11.0 | -0.2 | -3.4 | 9.8 | 11.6 | -1.8*** | -28.2 |
| Child Health Status | ||||||||||||
| Child's Health Status | 4.1 | 4.1 | -0.0 | -3.4 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 10.2 | 4.0 | 4.1 | -0.1 | -10.4 |
| Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor Health*** | 7.4 | 6.9 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 8.7 | 11.4 | -2.7 | -9.4 | 8.2 | 8.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 |
| Quality of the Home Environment and Parenting: Overall and Physical Environment | ||||||||||||
| Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score | 28.3 | 27.3 | 1.0** | 19.5 | 26.3 | 26.1 | 0.2 | 3.9 | 28.3 | 27.9 | 0.5 | 9.2 |
| HOME Internal Physical Environment | 7.9 | 7.7 | 0.2 | 12.2 | 7.7 | 7.8 | -0.2 | -11.5 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 0.1 | 8.1 |
| Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support | ||||||||||||
| HOME Warmth | 2.5 | 2.4 | 0.2** | 18.4 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 0.1 | 7.2 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 0.0 | 1.0 |
| Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.1 | 4.1 | 0.0 | 4.6 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 0.2** | 19.9 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 0.2* | 22.6 |
| Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.9 | 4.8 | 0.1 | 10.7 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 0.0 | 2.3 |
| Parenting Behavior: Stimulation of Language and Learning | ||||||||||||
| Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime*** | 63.3 | 63.6 | -0.2 | -0.4 | 55.9 | 51.9 | 4.0 | 8.1 | 59.3 | 59.9 | -0.6 | -1.2 |
| Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine*** | 72.2 | 70.3 | 1.9 | 4.1 | 66.6 | 66.3 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 70.0 | 69.6 | 0.4 | 0.9 |
| HOME: Support of Language and Learning | 10.8 | 10.6 | 0.2 | 7.8 | 10.2 | 9.8 | 0.3** | 16.2 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 |
| Parent-Child Play | 4.4 | 4.3 | 0.1* | 13.9 | 4.4 | 4.3 | 0.1 | 11.6 | 4.4 | 4.5 | -0.0 | -0.7 |
| Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 3.9 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 4.3 | 3.4 | 3.2 | 0.2** | 19.7 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 3.3 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily*** | 63.3 | 52.0 | 11.3*** | 22.6 | 49.5 | 43.3 | 6.2 | 12.3 | 57.6 | 58.9 | -1.3 | -2.7 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime*** | 40.9 | 34.6 | 6.3 | 13.9 | 27.1 | 20.7 | 6.5* | 14.2 | 28.1 | 31.0 | -2.8 | -6.2 |
| Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior | ||||||||||||
| Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play** | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 1.2 | 1.3 | -0.1* | -17.5 | 1.2 | 1.2 | -0.1 | -9.8 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.4 | 1.5 | -0.1 | -6.7 | 1.7 | 1.7 | -0.0 | -2.3 | 1.7 | 1.7 | -0.1 | -7.0 |
| Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 1.6 | 1.6 | -0.0 | -3.0 | 1.7 | 1.7 | -0.0 | -2.4 | 1.6 | 1.7 | -0.1 | -4.9 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.5 | 2.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.9 | 3.1 | -0.2* | -16.6 | 2.6 | 2.6 | -0.0 | -1.8 |
| Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.0 | -3.5 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.0 | -0.4 |
| HOME Harshness** | 0.2 | 0.3 | -0.1 | -12.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.1** | 20.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | -0.0 | -1.0 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week*** | 44.0 | 52.2 | -8.1* | -16.3 | 46.8 | 55.7 | -8.9** | -17.9 | 49.6 | 56.7 | -7.2 | -14.4 |
| Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies | ||||||||||||
| Percentage of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly*** | 73.3 | 73.9 | -0.5 | -1.2 | 72.3 | 74.8 | -2.5 | -5.4 | 62.3 | 68.8 | -6.5 | -14.2 |
| Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy*** | 31.5 | 42.0 | -10.5*** | -20.9 | 54.4 | 59.3 | -4.9 | -9.7 | 54.2 | 55.8 | -1.6 | -3.2 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only*** | 58.8 | 49.5 | 9.3** | 18.8 | 37.3 | 30.2 | 7.1* | 14.4 | 36.8 | 37.9 | -1.1 | -2.3 |
| Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies | 2.9 | 3.3 | -0.4*** | -23.3 | 3.6 | 3.9 | -0.2** | -14.7 | 3.6 | 3.6 | -0.0 | -1.2 |
| Parent Physical and Mental Health | ||||||||||||
| Parent's Health Status | 3.4 | 3.5 | -0.1 | -6.7 | 3.4 | 3.3 | 0.1 | 11.0 | 3.5 | 3.6 | -0.1 | -13.4 |
| Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress | 24.3 | 25.0 | -0.7 | -7.7 | 25.9 | 26.3 | -0.5 | -5.0 | 23.8 | 25.5 | -1.7* | -17.6 |
| PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction | 18.0 | 17.6 | 0.4 | 6.9 | 17.8 | 17.9 | -0.2 | -2.8 | 17.4 | 17.8 | -0.5 | -7.3 |
| Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form) | 7.6 | 8.7 | -1.1* | -15.5 | 7.5 | 7.4 | 0.1 | 1.6 | 7.0 | 7.1 | -0.1 | -1.4 |
| CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms *** | 14.9 | 17.3 | -2.4 | -6.7 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 0.7 | 2.1 | 13.9 | 13.8 | 0.1 | 0.3 |
| Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict | 1.7 | 1.7 | -0.0 | -8.0 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 1.6 | 1.7 | -0.1 | -15.2 |
| Father Presence | ||||||||||||
| Currently Married to Biological Father *** | 41.0 | 40.5 | 0.5 | 1.1 | 35.2 | 36.2 | -1.0 | -2.1 | 26.6 | 30.4 | -3.8 | -7.8 |
| Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent*** | 52.7 | 52.1 | 0.7 | 1.3 | 47.4 | 53.2 | -5.8 | -11.6 | 46.0 | 48.8 | -2.8 | -5.6 |
| Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life*** | 71.1 | 69.9 | 1.3 | 2.8 | 72.7 | 70.9 | 1.8 | 4.0 | 74.8 | 72.1 | 2.8 | 6.2 |
| Continuous Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 66.1 | 70.6 | -4.6 | -9.9 | 66.5 | 69.1 | -2.7 | -5.8 | 69.0 | 68.2 | 0.8 | 1.7 |
| No Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 14.4 | 10.2 | 4.2 | 13.5 | 12.2 | 12.7 | -0.5 | -1.4 | 10.3 | 10.0 | 0.2 | 0.8 |
| Continuous Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 78.7 | 83.9 | -5.2 | -14.5 | 79.6 | 85.3 | -5.7 | -15.9 | 80.3 | 80.7 | -0.3 | -0.9 |
| No Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 2.2 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 9.7 | 2.5 | 1.9 | 0.6 | 4.8 | 1.9 | 2.1 | -0.2 | -1.5 |
| Sample Size | ||||||||||||
| Bayley | 305 | 298 | 603 | 336 | 277 | 613 | 238 | 204 | 442 | |||
| Parent Interview | 388 | 358 | 746 | 418 | 362 | 780 | 301 | 283 | 584 | |||
| Parent-Child Interactions | 306 | 291 | 597 | 348 | 295 | 643 | 220 | 198 | 418 | |||
|
SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments, interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months old. NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Early Implementers | Later Implementers | Incomplete Implementers | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Education/Job Training | ||||||||||||
| Ever in Education or Training***d | 60.6 | 53.2 | 7.4* | 14.8 | 56.4 | 51.2 | 5.1 | 10.3 | 63.5 | 52.0 | 11.5** | 23.0 |
| Ever in High School*** | 7.4 | 6.9 | 0.5 | 1.7 | 15.7 | 11.9 | 3.8* | 13.2 | 18.5 | 9.4 | 9.1*** | 31.9 |
| Ever in ESL Class*** | 2.9 | 3.2 | -0.3 | -2.4 | 4.4 | 3.0 | 1.3 | 9.3 | 3.1 | 2.2 | 1.0 | 6.8 |
| Ever in Vocational Program*** | 20.5 | 17.2 | 3.3 | 8.7 | 16.3 | 17.3 | -1.0 | -2.7 | 23.1 | 18.0 | 5.1 | 13.7 |
| Average Hours per Week in Education or Training | 3.4 | 3.1 | 0.3 | 4.0 | 4.5 | 3.4 | 1.1** | 17.9 | 6.1 | 4.2 | 1.9** | 29.8 |
| In Education or Training: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 23.6 | 19.3 | 4.4 | 10.6 | 21.8 | 23.0 | -1.2 | -3.0 | 21.2 | 26.0 | -4.8 | -11.7 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 23.6 | 23.2 | 0.4 | 1.0 | 27.8 | 24.2 | 3.6 | 8.3 | 30.3 | 29.1 | 1.3 | 2.9 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 25.9 | 23.8 | 2.1 | 4.7 | 30.6 | 27.3 | 3.2 | 7.3 | 39.0 | 31.2 | 7.8* | 17.6 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 28.2 | 23.5 | 4.8 | 11.1 | 29.1 | 24.2 | 4.9 | 11.5 | 37.0 | 29.4 | 7.6* | 17.7 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 27.1 | 25.1 | 2.1 | 4.8 | 29.0 | 25.8 | 3.3 | 7.6 | 36.5 | 27.9 | 8.6** | 20.0 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 27.8 | 24.0 | 3.7 | 9.0 | 25.8 | 23.7 | 2.1 | 5.0 | 36.2 | 23.9 | 12.3*** | 29.6 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 22.5 | 22.5 | -0.0 | -0.1 | 24.7 | 22.9 | 1.8 | 4.5 | 32.6 | 17.8 | 14.8*** | 36.9 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 22.1 | 20.0 | 2.1 | 5.3 | 26.0 | 21.0 | 5.0 | 12.7 | 32.6 | 18.1 | 14.5*** | 37.1 |
| Have High School Diploma*** | 56.5 | 57.0 | -0.5 | -0.9 | 37.4 | 41.4 | -4.0 | -7.9 | 58.7 | 51.6 | 7.1 | 14.2 |
| Have GED*** | 14.0 | 10.8 | 3.3 | 10.3 | 8.4 | 6.6 | 1.8 | 5.7 | 7.2 | 15.4 | -8.2** | -25.9 |
| Employment | ||||||||||||
| Ever Employed*** | 90.0 | 84.2 | 5.8** | 15.4 | 82.3 | 82.9 | -0.6 | -1.5 | 88.0 | 82.2 | 5.7 | 15.3 |
| Average Hours/Week Employed | 18.6 | 17.0 | 1.6 | 10.9 | 15.9 | 16.9 | -1.0 | -6.8 | 16.9 | 16.8 | 0.1 | 0.5 |
| Employed in: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 44.5 | 43.3 | 1.2 | 2.5 | 37.8 | 35.9 | 1.9 | 4.0 | 33.7 | 37.2 | -3.5 | -7.2 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 53.0 | 49.8 | 3.2 | 6.4 | 42.8 | 44.3 | -1.5 | -3.0 | 39.8 | 42.5 | -2.8 | -5.5 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 61.8 | 56.5 | 5.3 | 10.6 | 46.8 | 50.8 | -4.0 | -8.0 | 49.6 | 50.3 | -0.7 | -1.4 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 66.4 | 58.5 | 7.9** | 15.9 | 50.5 | 50.7 | -0.3 | -0.5 | 52.9 | 55.1 | -2.3 | -4.6 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 68.9 | 59.6 | 9.3*** | 18.9 | 58.5 | 57.2 | 1.3 | 2.7 | 55.9 | 60.2 | -4.4 | -8.9 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 68.1 | 58.0 | 10.0** | 20.3 | 59.2 | 57.3 | 1.9 | 3.8 | 64.7 | 61.4 | 3.3 | 6.7 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 61.4 | 57.2 | 4.2 | 8.4 | 60.4 | 57.6 | 2.8 | 5.7 | 59.5 | 54.9 | 4.6 | 9.2 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 66.7 | 60.1 | 6.6 | 13.5 | 61.3 | 59.9 | 1.4 | 2.8 | 61.7 | 64.1 | -2.3 | -4.8 |
| Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education, Training or Employment) | ||||||||||||
| Ever Employed or in Education/Training*** | 94.8 | 90.8 | 4.0* | 13.1 | 91.3 | 89.9 | 1.3 | 4.4 | 96.1 | 90.2 | 5.9** | 19.4 |
| Average Hours per Week in Any Activity | 22.3 | 20.8 | 1.5 | 9.6 | 21.2 | 20.7 | 0.5 | 3.2 | 23.8 | 21.4 | 2.4 | 15.3 |
| In Activities in: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 57.8 | 53.5 | 4.4 | 8.8 | 51.8 | 50.3 | 1.5 | 3.1 | 49.4 | 53.9 | -4.1 | -8.1 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 64.3 | 59.8 | 4.4 | 9.0 | 60.7 | 57.8 | 2.9 | 5.8 | 61.8 | 59.2 | 2.5 | 5.1 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 72.1 | 69.2 | 2.9 | 6.2 | 64.7 | 64.3 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 74.9 | 65.6 | 9.2** | 19.4 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 77.6 | 68.0 | 9.7*** | 20.2 | 66.4 | 63.8 | 2.6 | 5.4 | 73.6 | 66.0 | 7.5* | 15.8 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 77.3 | 71.2 | 6.1* | 13.2 | 71.5 | 68.2 | 3.3 | 7.2 | 74.8 | 68.9 | 5.9 | 12.7 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 77.9 | 68.9 | 9.0** | 19.1 | 71.2 | 66.6 | 4.5 | 9.6 | 82.3 | 68.3 | 14.0*** | 29.8 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 71.1 | 67.9 | 3.2 | 6.8 | 69.4 | 65.7 | 3.7 | 7.7 | 76.2 | 62.3 | 13.8*** | 28.9 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 75.1 | 68.0 | 7.1* | 15.3 | 70.6 | 68.2 | 2.4 | 5.2 | 77.4 | 70.2 | 7.2 | 15.4 |
| AFDC/TANF Receipt | ||||||||||||
| Ever Received AFDC/TANF*** | 40.1 | 39.5 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 48.7 | 44.9 | 3.8 | 7.5 | 53.8 | 49.1 | 4.7 | 9.4 |
| Received AFDC/TANF in: | ||||||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 29.9 | 27.3 | 2.6 | 5.5 | 33.9 | 28.8 | 5.2* | 11.1 | 38.8 | 36.9 | 1.9 | 3.9 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 30.7 | 27.6 | 3.1 | 6.6 | 33.5 | 30.0 | 3.6 | 7.5 | 40.3 | 41.2 | -0.9 | -1.9 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 31.6 | 28.9 | 2.7 | 5.7 | 35.0 | 33.7 | 1.3 | 2.7 | 45.5 | 42.2 | 3.3 | 6.9 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 24.4 | 24.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 29.3 | 28.4 | 0.9 | 1.9 | 40.1 | 37.2 | 2.9 | 6.3 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 21.7 | 25.4 | -3.8 | -8.2 | 30.6 | 26.5 | 4.1 | 9.0 | 38.8 | 35.9 | 2.9 | 6.4 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 20.2 | 25.8 | -5.6* | -12.2 | 30.6 | 27.0 | 3.6 | 7.8 | 38.5 | 38.8 | -0.3 | -0.6 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 17.8 | 20.2 | -2.4 | -5.4 | 25.3 | 23.0 | 2.4 | 5.4 | 26.4 | 34.8 | -8.4* | -19.2 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 16.0 | 19.5 | -3.4 | -8.1 | 24.9 | 21.5 | 3.4 | 7.9 | 26.5 | 29.7 | -3.2 | -7.5 |
| Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($) | $1,992 | $2,152 | -$160 | -4.1 | $2,116 | $1,958 | $158 | 4.1 | $2,391 | $2,416 | -$25 | -0.7 |
| Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits | ||||||||||||
| Ever Received Welfare*** | 66.4 | 64.3 | 2.1 | 4.5 | 70.0 | 67.6 | 2.3 | 5.0 | 68.8 | 65.7 | 3.2 | 6.7 |
| Total Welfare Benefits ($) | $5,208 | $5,486 | -$278 | -3.7 | $5,310 | $5,628 | -$318 | -4.2 | $5,376 | $5,652 | -$276 | -3.7 |
| Ever Received Food Stamps*** | 58.1 | 58.5 | -0.4 | -0.7 | 62.7 | 60.3 | -2.4 | 4.9 | 62.3 | 58.8 | 3.5 | 7.2 |
| Total Food Stamp Benefits ($) | $2,065 | $2,154 | -$90 | -3.3 | $1,987 | $1,868 | $120 | 4.4 | $2,377 | $2,303 | $74 | 2.7 |
| Income/Poverty | ||||||||||||
| Income Above Poverty Level*** | 41.9 | 44.9 | -3.0 | -6.1 | 36.2 | 43.1 | -6.8* | -13.9 | 52.3 | 40.3 | 11.9** | 24.2 |
| Subsequent Births | ||||||||||||
| Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment*** | 22.0 | 28.3 | -6.4 | -14.2 | 26.5 | 27.1 | -0.6 | -1.4 | 19.6 | 26.7 | -7.1 | -15.7 |
| Sample Size | 266 | 367 | 733 | 410 | 374 | 784 | 300 | 270 | 570 | |||
|
SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment. NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Early Implementation | Late or Incomplete Implementation | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Child Cognitive and Language Development | ||||||||
| Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score*d | 93.1 | 89.5 | 3.7* | 28.3 | 85.4 | 86.4 | -1.0 | -7.7 |
| Percentage with MDI < 85*** | 27.2 | 36.4 | -9.2 | -19.7 | 45.3 | 43.6 | 1.7 | 3.6 |
| Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score | 85.8 | 83.4 | 2.4 | 14.9 | 78.3 | 73.4 | 4.9 | 29.8 |
| Percentage
with PPVT-III < 85*** |
45.7 | 62.6 | -16.9** | -33.9 | 66.2 | 70.2 | -4.0 | -8.1 |
| Child Social-Emotional Development | ||||||||
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.9 | 4.5 | 0.5*** | 43.4 | 4.6 | 4.4 | 0.2 | 19.9 |
| Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 5.1 | 4.7 | 0.4*** | 41.7 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 0.2 | 16.8 |
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 5.0 | 4.9 | 0.0 | 3.4 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 11.5 |
| Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.6 | 4.5 | 0.1 | 11.6 | 4.4 | 4.4 | -0.0 | -2.0 |
| Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation | 4.0 | 4.1 | -0.1 | -15.2 | 4.0 | 4.1 | -0.1 | -15.2 |
| Bayley BRS: Orientation/ Engagement | 3.9 | 4.0 | -0.2 | -19.7 | 3.8 | 4.0 | -0.1 | -15.7 |
| Negativity Toward Parent During Parent- Child Semistructured Play | 1.2 | 1.4 | -0.1 | -21.1 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 2.2 |
| Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.9 | 2.9 | -0.0 | -1.4 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 0.2 | 17.6 |
| Child Behavior Checklist-Aggressive Behavior | 11.0 | 12.0 | -1.0 | -14.8 | 10.3 | 10.3 | -0.1 | -0.8 |
| Child Health Status | ||||||||
| Child's Health Status | 4.1 | 4.2 | -0.1 | -14.2 | 4.2 | 4.0 | 0.2 | 17.1 |
| Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor Health*** | 6.3 | 4.8 | 1.5 | 5.4 | 4.5 | 7.4 | -2.9 | -10.2 |
| Quality of the Home Parenting: Environment and Overall and Physical Environment | ||||||||
| Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score | 27.8 | 27.1 | 0.6 | 12.8 | 26.3 | 26.0 | 0.3 | 5.8 |
| HOME Internal Physical Environment | 7.7 | 7.7 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 7.8 | 7.9 | -0.1 | -5.6 |
| Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support | ||||||||
| HOME Warmth | 2.5 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 13.8 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 0.0 | 0.7 |
| Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.1 | 3.8 | 0.3 | 27.1 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 0.2 | 18.4 |
| Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task** | 4.8 | 4.3 | 0.6*** | 42.2 | 4.0 | 4.0 | -0.1 | -3.6 |
| Parenting Behavior: Stimulation of Language and Learning | ||||||||
| Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime*** | 58.5 | 66.1 | -7.6 | -15.4 | 59.9 | 62.0 | -2.1 | -4.2 |
| Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine*** | 66.5 | 62.6 | 3.9 | 8.5 | 69.8 | 73.2 | -3.3 | -7.2 |
| HOME: Support of Language and Learning | 10.5 | 10.3 | 0.2 | 8.8 | 10.1 | 9.8 | 0.3 | 13.9 |
| Parent-Child Play | 4.3 | 4.1 | 0.2* | 24.3 | 4.5 | 4.3 | 0.1 | 14.8 |
| Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 3.9 | 3.6 | 0.3* | 27.8 | 3.3 | 3.0 | 0.3* | 25.1 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily*** | 60.4 | 37.3 | 23.1*** | 46.2 | 58.0 | 50.4 | 7.6 | 15.2 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime*** | 39.0 | 27.4 | 11.6 | 25.5 | 35.2 | 32.0 | 3.2 | 7.1 |
| Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior | ||||||||
| Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.3 | 1.4 | -0.1 | -22.1 | 1.1 | 1.4 | -0.2** | -35.7 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.5 | 1.6 | -0.1 | -7.8 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 7.0 |
| Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 1.6 | 2.0 | -0.4** | -37.2 | 1.8 | 2.0 | -0.2 | -18.8 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task* | 2.6 | 2.9 | -0.4* | -27.4 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 0.2 | 13.5 |
| Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.4 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 5.6 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 10.4 |
| HOME Harshness | 0.2 | 0.2 | -0.0 | -3.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 13.7 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week*** | 42.3 | 55.5 | -13.2* | -26.5 | 50.7 | 61.8 | -11.1* | -22.2 |
| Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies | ||||||||
| Percentage of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly*** | 73.8 | 68.9 | 4.9 | 10.8 | 73.4 | 77.0 | -3.6 | -7.9 |
| Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy*** | 33.0 | 51.9 | -18.9*** | -37.8 | 54.9 | 58.3 | -3.4 | -6.8 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only*** | 60.0 | 38.9 | 21.1*** | 42.8 | 38.5 | 35.0 | 3.5 | 7.2 |
| Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies** | 2.8 | 3.5 | -0.7*** | -43.8 | 3.6 | 3.7 | -0.1 | -7.8 |
| Parent Physical and Mental Health | ||||||||
| Parent's Health Status | 3.3 | 3.4 | -0.1 | -12.9 | 3.7 | 3.6 | 0.1 | 8.7 |
| Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress | 24.2 | 25.3 | -1.1 | -11.6 | 25.4 | 25.7 | -0.4 | -3.8 |
| PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction | 17.6 | 17.9 | -0.4 | -5.4 | 18.6 | 17.0 | 1.6* | 25.2 |
| Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form)* | 7.2 | 8.5 | -1.3 | -18.1 | 7.1 | 6.1 | 1.0 | 14.3 |
| CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms *** | 15.3 | 14.9 | 0.4 | 1.1 | 13.0 | 10.6 | 2.3 | 6.5 |
| Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict | 1.7 | 1.8 | -0.0 | -6.7 | 1.6 | 1.6 | -0.0 | -2.4 |
| Father Presence | ||||||||
| Currently Married to Biological Father *** | 35.7 | 35.2 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 33.3 | 34.8 | -1.6 | -3.2 |
| Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent*** | 48.3 | 50.9 | -2.6 | -5.2 | 43.5 | 42.0 | 1.6 | 3.1 |
| Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life*** | 70.9 | 67.9 | 3.1 | 6.9 | 69.9 | 67.8 | 2.1 | 4.6 |
| Continuous Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 63.2 | 68.5 | -5.3 | -11.5 | 65.5 | 60.0 | 5.5 | 11.9 |
| No Biological Father Presence Child Age 14- 36 Months*** | 16.8 | 13.3 | 3.4 | 11.0 | 14.3 | 16.7 | -2.4 | -7.6 |
| Continuous Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 74.9 | 79.2 | -4.4 | -12.2 | 84.0 | 77.8 | 6.3 | 17.5 |
| No Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months* | 2.9 | 1.7 | 1.2 | 10.1 | 3.0 | 1.9 | 1.2 | 9.5 |
| Sample Size | ||||||||
| Bayley | 136 | 153 | 289 | 130 | 104 | 234 | ||
| Parent Interview | 173 | 182 | 355 | 178 | 162 | 340 | ||
| Parent-Child Interactions | 122 | 139 | 261 | 129 | 116 | 245 | ||
| SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments,
interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child
interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months
old.
NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Early Implementers | Late or Incomplete Implementers | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Education/JobTraining | ||||||||
| Ever in Education or Training***d | 60.7 | 44.1 | 16.6** | 33.2 | 70.1 | 57.6 | 12.5** | 25.0 |
| Ever in High School*** | 7.2 | 6.8 | 0.4 | 1.4 | 23.9 | 14.1 | 9.7** | 34.1 |
| Ever in ESL Class*** | 3.0 | 2.8 | 0.2 | 1.4 | 7.1 | 4.2 | 2.9 | 20.3 |
| Ever in Vocational Program*** | 22.2 | 15.4 | 6.8 | 18.0 | 22.8 | 19.4 | 3.3 | 8.9 |
| Average Hours per Week in Education or Training | 2.6 | 2.6 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 5.9 | 4.2 | 1.8** | 27.5 |
| In Education or Training: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 17.7 | 12.3 | 5.3 | 12.9 | 27.2 | 26.7 | 0.4 | 1.1 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 17.2 | 14.3 | 2.9 | 6.6 | 37.3 | 29.2 | 8.1 | 18.7 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 21.9 | 19.7 | 2.2 | 5.1 | 40.8 | 31.1 | 9.7* | 22.0 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 24.7 | 21.9 | 2.8 | 6.5 | 38.3 | 30.0 | 8.2 | 19.2 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 22.6 | 23.2 | -0.6 | -1.3 | 36.8 | 33.3 | 3.5 | 8.1 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 25.8 | 22.1 | 3.7 | 8.8 | 29.0 | 27.3 | 1.7 | 4.1 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 21.9 | 21.2 | 0.7 | 1.8 | 31.3 | 24.5 | 6.8 | 17.0 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 22.4 | 14.3 | 8.1 | 20.7 | 33.0 | 24.5 | 8.5 | 21.7 |
| Have High School Diploma*** | 52.1 | 50.8 | 1.3 | 2.7 | 48.5 | 45.0 | 3.5 | 7.0 |
| Have GED*** | 14.7 | 7.4 | 7.3 | 23.1 | 5.7 | 9.1 | -3.4 | -10.7 |
| Employment | ||||||||
| Ever Employed*** | 88.5 | 78.2 | 10.3** | 27.5 | 88.4 | 82.8 | 5.6 | 14.9 |
| Average Hours/Week Employed | 15.7 | 12.9 | 2.8 | 18.9 | 17.8 | 18.8 | -1.0 | -6.4 |
| Employed in: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 31.7 | 32.1 | -0.3 | -0.7 | 38.8 | 34.2 | 4.7 | 9.6 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 43.1 | 35.5 | 7.6 | 15.3 | 47.5 | 44.8 | 2.7 | 5.5 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 52.5 | 46.2 | 6.2 | 12.4 | 53.1 | 56.0 | -2.9 | -5.8 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 58.6 | 47.4 | 11.2* | 22.4 | 54.2 | 58.2 | -4.0 | -8.1 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 61.2 | 46.7 | 14.6** | 29.6 | 59.4 | 61.0 | -1.7 | -3.4 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 60.2 | 49.5 | 10.7 | 21.7 | 64.4 | 61.2 | 3.4 | 6.8 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 55.5 | 48.5 | 7.0 | 14.1 | 66.9 | 57.0 | 9.9 | 20.0 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 63.9 | 50.2 | 13.8** | 28.2 | 70.3 | 62.1 | 8.3 | 16.9 |
| Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education,Training, or Employment) | ||||||||
| Ever Employed or in Education/Training*** | 93.4 | 86.4 | 7.0* | 23.1 | 97.7 | 91.4 | 6.3** | 20.8 |
| Average Hours per Week in Any Activity | 18.7 | 16.1 | 2.6 | 16.6 | 23.9 | 23.0 | 0.9 | 5.9 |
| In Activities in: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 44.1 | 40.7 | 3.4 | 6.8 | 57.6 | 52.8 | 4.8 | 9.7 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 53.4 | 43.6 | 9.9* | 20.0 | 70.2 | 60.9 | 9.4* | 19.0 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 63.3 | 59.1 | 4.2 | 8.8 | 78.0 | 68.3 | 9.7* | 20.4 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 70.5 | 59.0 | 11.5** | 24.2 | 73.1 | 72.0 | 1.2 | 2.4 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 69.5 | 60.8 | 8.7 | 18.9 | 78.1 | 72.8 | 5.3 | 11.5 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 70.3 | 61.8 | 8.5 | 18.1 | 78.1 | 70.1 | 8.0 | 17.0 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 64.8 | 59.6 | 5.2 | 10.9 | 78.5 | 66.7 | 11.8** | 24.6 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 72.2 | 57.6 | 14.6** | 31.3 | 82.1 | 69.6 | 12.4** | 26.6 |
| AFDC/TANF Receipt | ||||||||
| Ever Received AFDC/TANF*** | 54.9 | 60.3 | -5.4 | -10.8 | 38.9 | 29.8 | 9.0** | 18.2 |
| Received AFDC/TANF in: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 42.7 | 39.7 | 3.0 | 6.3 | 23.3 | 19.6 | 3.7 | 8.0 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 44.1 | 42.5 | 1.6 | 3.4 | 25.3 | 21.3 | 4.0 | 8.4 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 47.4 | 43.1 | 4.3 | 9.0 | 26.5 | 23.9 | 2.6 | 5.4 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 40.4 | 38.6 | 1.8 | 3.9 | 20.9 | 13.9 | 6.9* | 15.0 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 36.2 | 42.0 | -5.8 | -12.6 | 24.4 | 11.0 | 13.4*** | 29.2 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 34.6 | 41.3 | -6.7 | -14.5 | 18.5 | 12.2 | 6.3 | 13.6 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 29.9 | 33.1 | -3.2 | -7.2 | 15.5 | 12.3 | 3.3 | 7.4 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 25.7 | 33.4 | -7.7 | -18.0 | 13.7 | 14.1 | -0.4 | -0.9 |
| Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($) | $3,590 | $3,592 | -$2 | -0.1 | $1,046 | $688 | $358* | 9.3 |
| Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits | ||||||||
| Ever Received Welfare*** | 72.3 | 76.3 | -3.9 | -8.4 | 59.7 | 53.5 | 6.2 | 13.3 |
| Total Welfare Benefits ($) | $7,084 | $8,275 | -$1,191 | -15.7 | $3,762 | $3,834 | -$77 | -1.0 |
| Ever Received Food Stamps*** | 64.0 | 71.5 | -7.5 | -15.3 | 52.6 | 43.6 | 9.0** | 18.4 |
| Total Food Stamp Benefits ($) | $2,560 | $2,653 | -$92 | -3.4 | $1,772 | $1,558 | $214 | 7.9 |
| Income/Poverty | ||||||||
| Income Above Poverty Level*** | 36.3 | 34.4 | 1.9 | 3.9 | 47.1 | 50.0 | -2.9 | -6.0 |
| Subsequent Births | ||||||||
| Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment*** | 20.0 | 27.9 | -8.0 | -17.7 | 28.6 | 28.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 |
| Sample Size | 180 | 195 | 375 | 178 | 159 | 367 | ||
|
SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment. NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Early or Late Implementers | Incomplete Implementers | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Child Cognitive and Language Development | ||||||||
| Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score*d | 92.9 | 90.2 | 2.7** | 21.0 | 95.5 | 96.2 | -0.7 | -5.3 |
| Percentage with MDI < 85*** | 24.9 | 27.3 | -2.4 | -5.2 | 14.8 | 14.7 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
| Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score* | 81.4 | 77.2 | 4.2* | 25.6 | 87.6 | 88.8 | -1.1 | -6.8 |
| Percentage with PPVT-III < 85*** | 55.9 | 60.1 | -4.2 | -8.3 | 35.6 | 38.3 | -2.6 | -5.3 |
| Child Social-Emotional Development | ||||||||
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.7 | 4.7 | 0.1 | 9.4 | 5.0 | 4.6 | 0.4** | 33.6 |
| Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.9 | 4.8 | 0.0 | 3.5 | 5.1 | 4.9 | 0.2* | 23.6 |
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 5.1 | 5.1 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 5.1 | 5.0 | 0.1 | 12.0 |
| Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.7 | 4.6 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 4.8 | 4.5 | 0.3 | 22.3 |
| Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation | 4.0 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 12.3 | 3.9 | 4.0 | -0.1 | -15.1 |
| Bayley BRS: Orientation/ Engagement | 3.8 | 3.7 | 0.1 | 10.0 | 3.9 | 3.9 | -0.1 | -6.9 |
| Negativity Toward Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.0 | -0.8 | 1.3 | 1.4 | -0.1 | -11.6 |
| Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.7 | 2.6 | 0.1 | 7.9 | 2.7 | 2.8 | -0.0 | -1.2 |
| Child Behavior Checklist-Aggressive Behavior | 11.6 | 12.0 | -0.4 | -6.8 | 10.7 | 11.6 | -0.9 | -13.7 |
| Child Health Status | ||||||||
| Child's Health Status | 3.9 | 3.9 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 4.1 | 4.1 | -0.1 | -4.9 |
| Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor Health*** | 12.7 | 12.4 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 6.1 | 6.7 | -0.5 | -1.9 |
| Quality of the Home Environment and Parenting: Overall and Physical Environment | ||||||||
| Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score | 28.1 | 27.9 | 0.2 | 4.4 | 28.4 | 28.3 | 0.2 | 3.7 |
| HOME Internal Physical Environment | 7.9 | 8.0 | -0.1 | -4.8 | 8.1 | 8.0 | 0.1 | 4.8 |
| Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support | ||||||||
| HOME Warmth | 2.7 | 2.7 | 0.0 | 4.2 | 2.7 | 2.8 | -0.1 | -5.6 |
| Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.0 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 6.7 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 0.2 | 21.6 |
| Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.6 | 4.6 | 0.0 | 1.5 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 0.1 | 6.3 |
| Parenting Behavior: Stimulation of Language and Learning | ||||||||
| Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime*** | 58.2 | 55.3 | 2.8 | 5.8 | 61.7 | 53.9 | 7.8 | 15.9 |
| Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine*** | 70.5 | 70.0 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 74.9 | 68.3 | 6.6 | 14.2 |
| HOME: Support of Language and Learning | 10.7 | 10.5 | 0.3 | 11.9 | 11.1 | 11.0 | 0.1 | 4.5 |
| Parent-Child Play | 4.3 | 4.3 | -0.0 | -3.4 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 0.1 | -7.2 |
| Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 3.7 | 3.5 | 0.2 | 12.8 | 3.4 | 3.6 | -0.2 | -16.3 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily*** | 51.8 | 53.1 | -1.4 | -2.8 | 57.9 | 59.6 | -1.7 | -3.3 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime*** | 28.9 | 25.4 | 3.5 | 7.7 | 30.8 | 27.0 | 3.7 | 8.2 |
| Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior | ||||||||
| Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -9.3 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.6 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 4.5 | 1.6 | 1.7 | -0.1 | -11.3 |
| Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 0.3 |
| Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 2.6 | 2.7 | -0.1 | -8.2 | 2.4 | 2.4 | -0.0 | -1.6 |
| Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.2 | 1.2 | -0.1 | -10.3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | -0.0 | -5.4 |
| HOME Harshness | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 10.8 | 0.4 | 0.4 | -0.0 | -7.0 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week*** | 36.2 | 45.9 | -9.7** | -19.5 | 54.9 | 61.8 | -1.9 | -3.9 |
| Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies | ||||||||
| Percentage of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly*** | 75.2 | 75.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 64.1 | 61.8 | 2.3 | 5.1 |
| Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy*** | 32.1 | 33.4 | -1.3 | -2.6 | 62.6 | 60.4 | 2.2 | 4.3 |
| Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only*** | 55.8 | 53.7 | 2.1 | 4.2 | 31.4 | 34.8 | -3.4 | -6.9 |
| Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies | 2.9 | 3.0 | -0.1 | -6.3 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 0.1 | 3.5 |
| Parent Physical and Mental Health | ||||||||
| Parent's Health Status | 3.3 | 3.3 | 0.0 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.6 | -0.2 | -14.8 |
| Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress | 25.8 | 27.7 | -1.9** | -20.2 | 23.6 | 25.1 | -1.5 | -15.7 |
| PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction | 17.7 | 18.1 | -0.4 | -6.7 | 17.2 | 18.0 | -0.8 | -12.9 |
| Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form) | 7.7 | 8.2 | -0.5 | -7.3 | 7.8 | 7.4 | 0.4 | 5.0 |
| CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms *** | 15.0 | 17.5 | -2.5 | -7.0 | 13.6 | 14.6 | -1.0 | -2.8 |
| Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict | 1.8 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 8.6 | 1.6 | 1.7 | -0.1 | -17.0 |
| Father Presence | ||||||||
| Currently Married to Biological Father *** | 52.9 | 53.2 | -0.4 | -0.7 | 19.0 | 20.8 | -1.9 | -3.8 |
| Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent*** | 63.5 | 69.4 | -5.9 | -11.8 | 38.8 | 39.3 | -0.6 | -1.1 |
| Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life*** | 77.2 | 80.0 | -2.9 | -6.4 | 67.3 | 70.6 | -3.3 | -7.5 |
| Continuous Biological Father Involvement Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 74.3 | 82.1 | -7.8* | -17.0 | 58.2 | 65.3 | -7.1 | -15.4 |
| No Biological Father Involvement Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 9.1 | 8.9 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 15.9 | 9.4 | 6.5 | 20.8 |
| Continuous Male Involvement Child Age 14- 36 Months*** | 81.4 | 91.3 | -9.9*** | -27.7 | 75.1 | 81.7 | -6.7 | -18.6 |
| No Male Involvement Child Age 14-36 Months*** | 1.7 | 0.4 | 1.3 | 10.6 | 3.4 | 2.4 | 0.9 | 7.7 |
| Sample Size | ||||||||
| Bayley | 303 | 259 | 562 | 199 | 189 | 388 | ||
| Parent Interview | 261 | 225 | 486 | 135 | 123 | 258 | ||
| Parent-Child Interactions | 246 | 213 | 459 | 150 | 137 | 287 | ||
| SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments,
interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child
interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months
old.
NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Early or Late Implementers | Incomplete Implementers | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Education/Job Training | ||||||||
| Ever in Education or Training***d | 46.5 | 46.3 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 63.2 | 41.6 | 21.6*** | 43.2 |
| Ever in High School*** | 11.1 | 6.9 | 4.1* | 14.5 | 14.5 | 5.3 | 9.2*** | 32.3 |
| Ever in ESL Class*** | 5.7 | 4.2 | 1.5 | 10.6 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 3.5 |
| Ever in Vocational Program*** | 13.1 | 16.4 | -3.3 | -8.8 | 25.8 | 13.6 | 12.2** | 32.3 |
| Average Hours per Week in Education or Training | 3.0 | 2.6 | 0.5 | 7.6 | 6.6 | 3.0 | 3.7*** | 57.8 |
| In Education or Training: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 18.4 | 19.3 | -0.9 | -2.2 | 25.2 | 22.0 | 3.2 | 7.7 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 21.7 | 19.0 | 2.7 | 6.3 | 29.9 | 25.5 | 4.4 | 10.3 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 21.8 | 23.5 | -1.8 | -4.0 | 37.5 | 28.0 | 9.5** | 21.6 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 23.4 | 19.9 | 3.5 | 8.1 | 32.7 | 23.4 | 9.3** | 21.7 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 23.9 | 21.7 | 2.1 | 5.0 | 35.6 | 22.7 | 12.9*** | 30.0 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 21.5 | 22.7 | -1.2 | -2.8 | 38.6 | 18.7 | 19.9*** | 47.9 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 19.2 | 19.3 | -0.1 | -0.3 | 28.6 | 13.6 | 15.0*** | 37.3 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 20.9 | 15.9 | 4.9 | 12.5 | 29.4 | 15.7 | 13.7*** | 34.8 |
| Have High School Diploma*** | 39.1 | 40.2 | -1.2 | -2.3 | 62.4 | 53.3 | 9.1* | 18.2 |
| Have GED*** | 7.9 | 6.1 | 1.9 | 5.9 | 9.6 | 19.2 | -9.6** | -30.2 |
| Employment | ||||||||
| Ever Employed*** | 79.0 | 80.3 | -1.3 | -3.6 | 89.5 | 83.1 | 6.4 | 17.0 |
| Average Hours/Week Employed | 13.9 | 14.3 | -0.4 | -2.6 | 16.2 | 15.9 | 0.4 | 2.6 |
| Employed in: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 34.1 | 33.6 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 33.6 | 38.2 | -4.6 | -9.5 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 37.1 | 41.3 | -4.1 | -8.3 | 39.4 | 43.6 | -4.2 | -8.3 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 43.7 | 48.1 | -4.4 | -8.8 | 51.1 | 52.3 | -1.2 | -2.5 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 48.7 | 48.9 | -0.2 | -0.3 | 56.4 | 53.5 | 2.9 | 5.7 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 55.6 | 56.7 | -1.1 | -2.2 | 61.1 | 59.8 | 1.3 | 2.7 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 57.7 | 54.1 | 3.5 | 7.2 | 67.6 | 63.0 | 4.6 | 9.3 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 57.1 | 56.7 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 58.6 | 52.6 | 6.1 | 12.3 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 55.1 | 58.3 | -3.2 | -6.5 | 57.6 | 62.0 | -4.4 | -8.9 |
| Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education,Training, or Employment) | ||||||||
| Ever Employed or in Education/Training*** | 87.1 | 87.6 | -0.5 | -1.6 | 96.4 | 88.4 | 7.9*** | 26.2 |
| Average Hours per Week in Any Activity | 17.5 | 17.0 | 0.4 | 2.8 | 23.5 | 19.6 | 3.9** | 24.5 |
| In Activities in: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 44.4 | 44.9 | -0.6 | -1.1 | 51.3 | 50.5 | 0.8 | 1.6 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 48.5 | 51.9 | -3.4 | -6.8 | 60.1 | 57.3 | 2.8 | 5.7 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 53.9 | 59.0 | -5.0 | -10.6 | 74.0 | 65.6 | 8.3* | 17.6 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 60.0 | 57.6 | 2.4 | 5.1 | 72.7 | 63.0 | 9.6** | 20.2 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 65.2 | 65.2 | -0.0 | -0.1 | 76.1 | 69.3 | 6.8 | 14.6 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 65.9 | 63.4 | 2.5 | 5.2 | 82.8 | 68.8 | 13.9*** | 29.7 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 64.0 | 53.6 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 70.4 | 60.8 | 9.6* | 20.1 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 62.6 | 64.1 | -1.6 | -3.3 | 69.7 | 68.9 | 0.8 | 1.8 |
| AFDC/TANF Receipt | ||||||||
| Ever Received AFDC/TANF*** | 44.8 | 42.1 | 2.7 | 5.4 | 69.7 | 65.7 | 4.0 | 8.0 |
| Received AFDC/TANF in: | ||||||||
| 1st Quarter*** | 34.6 | 31.0 | 3.6 | 7.8 | 52.8 | 49.7 | 3.1 | 6.5 |
| 2nd Quarter*** | 33.6 | 32.0 | 1.6 | 3.4 | 53.4 | 55.5 | -2.1 | -4.4 |
| 3rd Quarter*** | 35.4 | 34.3 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 61.1 | 55.5 | 5.6 | 11.7 |
| 4th Quarter*** | 28.8 | 30.1 | -1.1 | -2.7 | 48.9 | 48.6 | 0.2 | 0.5 |
| 5th Quarter*** | 28.0 | 29.1 | -1.1 | -2.4 | 47.0 | 49.1 | -2.2 | -4.7 |
| 6th Quarter*** | 29.6 | 28.0 | 1.6 | 3.4 | 46.4 | 51.6 | -5.2 | -11.3 |
| 7th Quarter*** | 23.7 | 21.2 | 2.4 | 5.6 | 33.3 | 44.0 | -10.7** | -24.3 |
| 8th Quarter*** | 24.0 | 18.3 | 5.7* | 13.5 | 33.7 | 38.5 | -4.9 | -11.5 |
| Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($) | $2,394 | $2,535 | -$141 | -3.7 | $3,108 | $3,172 | -$64 | -1.7 |
| Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits | ||||||||
| Ever Received Welfare*** | 63.9 | 62.7 | 1.2 | 2.6 | 85.2 | 79.6 | 5.6* | 11.9 |
| Total Welfare Benefits ($) | $5,186 | $5,559 | -$373 | -4.9 | $6,886 | $6,785 | $101 | 1.3 |
| Ever Received Food Stamps*** | 57.8 | 58.5 | -0.7 | -1.5 | 78.4 | 74.8 | 3.7 | 7.5 |
| Total Food Stamp Benefits ($) | $1,753 | $1,660 | $93 | 3.4 | $3,024 | $2,758 | $265 | 9.7 |
| Income/Poverty | ||||||||
| Income Above Poverty Level*** | 42.8 | 44.9 | -2.2 | -4.4 | 38.8 | 37.9 | 0.9 | 1.8 |
| Subsequent Births | ||||||||
| Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment*** | 26.5 | 26.2 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 25.9 | 31.3 | -5.4 | -12.0 |
| Sample Size | 287 | 276 | 563 | 201 | 177 | 378 | ||
|
SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment. NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroup are included in the estimates for each subgroup. aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back) bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back) cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back) dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back) *Significantly different from zero at the .10 level,
two-tailed test. |
| Strong Full Implementation | Not Strong or Not Full Implementation | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec | Program Group Participants |
Control Groupa |
Impact Estimate per Participantb |
Effect Sizec |
| Child Cognitive and Language Development | ||||||||
| Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score**d | 93.7 | 89.8 | 4.0*** | 30.6 | 90.7 | 90.1 | 0.7 | 5.2 |
| Percentage with MDI < 85*** | 25.2 | 33.0 | -7.8 | -16.8 | 27.9 | 31.5 | -3.6 | -7.7 |
| PPVT-III Standard Score | 84.5 | 83.6 | 0.9 | 5.5 | 82.8 | 80.6 | 2.2** | 13.6 |
| Percentage with PPVT-III < 85*** | 47.4 | 55.7 | -8.3 | -16.6 | 52.3 | 57.2 | -4.9 | -9.8 |
| Child Social-Emotional Development | ||||||||
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 4.9 | 4.6 | 0.3** | 26.3 | 4.8 | 4.6 | 0.2*** | 22.7 |
| Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 5.1 | 4.9 | 0.3** | 25.0 | 4.9 | 4.8 | 0.1** | 14.2 |
| Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 5.1 | 4.9 | 0.2 | 19.8 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 5.2 |
| Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task | 4.6 | 4.6 | 0.1 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 0.1 | 8.4 |
| Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation | 4.1 | 4.1 | -0.0 | -2.8 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 |
| Bayley BRS: Orientation/ Engagement | 4.0 | 4.1 | -0.0 | -2.3 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 0.1 | 6.5 |
| Negativity Toward Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play | 1.2 | 1.3 | -0.1 | -14.2 | ||||