ACF OPRE: Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (EHSRE)

APPENDIX E.VII

NOTABLE DIFFERENCES ACROSS KEY SUBGROUPS
African American Families	Hispanic Families	White, Non-Hispanic Families
Less likely to be in home-based programs (37vs. 50-53%) More likely to be in programs that wereimplemented incompletely (43 vs 17-26%) More likely to include teenage mothers (52vs. 29-32%) More likely to enroll with firstborn children(69 vs 54-60%) More likely to be in school or training whenenrolled (34 vs 15%) and less likely to beneither employed nor in school (44 vs 59-63%) More likely to be receiving welfare cashassistance (50 vs 23-31%) Less likely to live with a spouse (7 vs 33-37%) and more likely to live alone (48 vs 25-34%) Less likely to be at risk of depression (39 vs.51-57%) More likely to have 3-5 demographic riskfactors (70 vs 49-56%) and 4-5 risk factors(36 vs 20-24%)	More likely to be in later implemented programs (56 vs 21-37%) Primary language less likely to be English (26 vs 97-98%) Much less likely to have completed 12th grade or GED (28 vs 52- 67%)	More likely to be in early implemented programs (54 vs 20-27%) More likely to live in states with a welfare work requirement for parents of infants (62 vs26-32%) More likely to live in nonurban areas (59 vs 30-32%)
Families Who Enrolled Before Child Was Born	Families Who Enrolled After Child Was Born
More likely to be in mixed-approach programs (44 vs 25-35%) More likely to live in an urban area (68 vs 56%) More likely to be in high-risk group (4 to 5 factors)
Families That Enrolled With Firstborn Child	Families That Enrolled With Later-Born Child
More likely to be African American (38 vs 28%) More likely to include teenage mothers (55 vs 13%) More likely to live with other adults (47 vs 25%) More likely to be in school or training when enrolled (30 vs 8%) More likely to have less than a high school diploma or GED when enrolled (52 vs 42%) More likely to have 3-5 demographic risk factors (63 vs 49%)	More likely to be neither employed nor in school or training when enrolled (68 vs 47%) More likely to live with a spouse when enrolled (38 vs 18%)
Families of Teenage Mothers	Families With Older Mothers
More likely to be African American (46 vs 27%) More likely to live with other adults (59 vs 27%) More likely to enroll with firstborn child (88 vs 47%) More likely to be in school or training when enrolled (44 vs 8%) More likely to have completed less than a high school diploma or GED (73 vs 32%) More likely to have 3-5 demographic risk factors (87 vs 39%) and 4-5 risk factors (52vs 11%) vs 16%) or training (64 vs(34 vs 11%)	More likely to be white (42 vs 31%) More likely to be employed (28 vs 16%) ortraining (64 vs(34 vs 11%) neither employed nor in school or39%) when enrolled More likely to live with spouse
Families Who Were Receiving Cash Assistance at Enrollment	Families Who Were Not Receiving Cash Assistance at Enrollment
More likely to live in an urban area (66 vs 51%) More likely to be African American (47 vs 25%) and less likely to be Hispanic (17 vs 30%) More likely to be neither employed nor in school or training when enrolled (65 vs 52%) More likely to live alone with children when enrolled (57 vs 26%) More likely to have 3-5 demographic risk factors (81 vs 42%) and 4-5 risk factors (45 vs 14%)	More likely to live in a state with requirement for parents of infants (48 vs 33%) More likely to be Hispanic (30 vs 17%) Much more likely to be employed (31 vs 13%) More likely to live with a spouse when enrolled (38 vs 10%) More likely to be at risk of 45%) depression (56 vs
Families in Which Parent Was Initially Employed	Families in Which Parent Was Initially in School or Job Training	Families in Which Parent Was Initially Neither Working Nor in School or Training
More likely to live in a state with work requirement for parents of infants (55 vs 36-39%) Less likely to be receiving welfare cash assistance at enrollment (18 vs 40-41%) More likely to enroll with an older infant (50 vs 36-37%) More likely to have education beyond a high school diploma (34 vs 18-21%) More likely to have 0-2 demographic risk factors (79 vs 26-33%) and 0-1 demographic risk factors(43 vs 8-11%)	More likely to be in incompletely implemented programs Less likely to be white (26 vs 40-41%) and more likely to be African American (54 vs 28-33%) More likely to include teenage mothers (77 vs 27-28%) More likely to have completed less than a high school diploma or GED (73 vs 29-46%) More likely to enroll with firstborn child (86 vs 53-60%) More likely to live with other adults (61 vs 31- 35%) Less likely to live with a spouse (8 vs 24-33%)	More likely to be in home-based programs (50 vs 38-43%) More likely to live with a spouse (33 vs 8-24%)
Families in Which Parent Had Less than 12th Grade Education When Enrolled	Families in Which Parent Had Completed 12th Grade or GED When Enrolled	Families in Which Parent Had Completed More Than 12th Grade When Enrolled
More likely to be in later-implemented programs (43 vs 25-27%) and less likely to be in early-implemented program (30 vs 40-42%) Less likely to live in a state with no welfare work requirement for parents of infants (66 vs 49-53%) More likely to include teenage parents (59 vs 11-29%) More likely to enroll with firstborn child (67 vs 56-59%) More likely to live with other adults (49 vs 25-33%) and less likely to live alone (30 vs 41%) Less likely to be white (26 vs 46-49%) and more likely to be Hispanic (35 vs 12-13%) Less likely to be employed when enrolled (14 vs 30-34%) and more likely to be in school or training (33 vs 7-17%) More likely to have 3-5 demographic risk factors (84 vs 24-42%) and 4-5 risk factors (50 vs 1-8%)	More likely to be neither in school nor employed when enrolled (63 vs 50-53%) More likely to have 2-3 demographic risk factors (67 vs 48-56%)	More likely to be at risk of depression (57 vs 48-49%) More likely to have 0-2 demographic risk factors (76 vs 16-58%) or 0-1 risk factors (43 vs 2-25%)
Families in Which Parent Lived With Spouse When Enrolled	Families in Which Parent Lived With Other Adults When Enrolled	Families in Which Parent Lived Alone With Her Children When Enrolled
More likely to be in early-implemented programs (41 vs 30-35%) More likely to live in a nonurban area (55 vs 35-39%) More likely to be white (49 vs 32-35%) or Hispanic (34 vs 16-23%) More likely to include older mothers (82 vs 41-67%) More likely to be neither employed nor in school or training (71 vs 45-54%) More likely to be at risk of depression (63 vs 47-49%) More likely have 0-2 demographic risk factors (83 vs 24-33%) an 0-1 risk factors (47 vs 6-11%)	More likely to be in mixed-approach programs (42 vs 26-31%) and less likely to be in home-based programs (36 vs 52-53%) More likely to be in later-implemented programs (42 vs 28-33%) More likely to include teenage mothers (58 vs 17-33%) More likely to have completed less than a high school diploma or GED (60 vs 40%) and less likely to have completed more than 12th grade (15 vs 27-31%) More likely to be in school or training when enrolled (35 vs 7-19%) More likely to enroll with first child (76 vs 44- 61%)	More likely to be in incompletely- implemented programs (41 vs 23-26%) More likely to be receiving welfare cash assistance when enrolled (54 vs 12-33%)
Families with 3-5 Demographic Risk Factors	Families with 0-2 Demographic Risk Factors
More likely to be African American (42 vs 24%) More likely to be teenage mother (58 vs 11%) More likely to enroll with firstborn child (68 vs 54%) More likely to in school or training (27 vs 13%) or neither in school or training (64 vs 43%) when enrolled More likely to have completed less than 12th grade or GED when enrolled (69 vs 18%) More likely to live with other adults (51 vs 22%) or alone (41 vs 28%) when enrolled More likely to be receiving welfare cash assistance when enrolled (51 vs 15%)	More likely to live in a state with a welfare work requirement for parents of infants (52 vs 36%) More likely to be white (46 vs 32%) More likely to be employed when enrolled (44 vs 9%) More likely to live with a spouse when enrolled (50 vs 8%) More likely to be at risk of depression when enrolled (58 vs 46%)
Families Not At Risk of Depression	Families at Risk of Depression
More likely to be in home-based programs (36 vs 25%) More likely to be in incompletely implemented programs (36 vs 25%) More likely to be African American (37 vs 23%) More likely to live with spouse (32 vs 22%) More likely to be receiving cash assistance at baseline (48 vs 37%) More likely to be in early-implemented programs (67 vs 56%) More likely to have 3-5 demographic risk factors (65 vs 52%)	More likely to be in mixed-approach programs (61 vs 51%) More likely to be in early-implemented programs (60 vs 48%) More likely to be white (51 vs 40%) More likely to live with a spouse (26 vs 16%)

NOTE: Only differences greater than 10 percentage points are noted in the table.

TABLE E.VII.2

IMPACTS ON SERVICE RECEIPT DURING THE FIRST 28 MONTHS, BY AFDC/TANF RECEIPT AT ENROLLMENT
Any Services
	Received AFDC/TANF			Did Not Receive AFDC/TANF
	Program Group	Group Control	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant	Program Group	Group Control	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant
Any Key Services***a,b	96.0	79.8	16.2***	95.5	80.6	14.9***
Any Home Visits Or Center-Based Child Care***	91.7	57.9	33.8***	92.5	57.8	34.6***
More Than 1 Home Visit or 2 Weeks Center-Based Child Care***	90.1	52.7	37.4***	92.0	53.6	38.5***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in at Least 1 Followup***	72.3	5.5	66.8***	76.7	15.5	61.1***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in All 3 Followups***	24.0	0.9	23.1***	35.6	4.7	30.9***
Home Visits
Any Home Visits***	86.6	33.7	52.9***	86.4	33.2	53.2***
Any Child Development Services During Home Visits***	84.7	32.1	52.6***	86.0	31.7	54.3***
Weekly Home Visits, 1st Follow-Up Period***	47.5	2.9	44.6***	45.4	2.4	43.0***
Weekly Home Visits, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	34.6	0.5	34.1***	36.9	3.5	33.5***
Weekly Home Visits, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	34.2	1.2	33.0***	29.2	2.4	26.8***
Weekly Home Visits in At Least 1 Followup***	65.7	3.8	61.8***	56.7	6.2	50.5***
Weekly Home Visits in All 3 Followups***	17.3	0.7	16.6***	22.2	0.9	21.3***
Child Care
Any Child Care***	83.8	80.5	3.3	83.3	77.8	5.5**
Any Center-Based Child Care***	43.2	34.2	9.0*	50.1	36.2	13.9***
Average Hours Per Week of Center-Based Care	4.0	2.5	1.5*	6.1	3.5	2.7***
Concurrent Child Care Arrangements***	43.7	42.3	1.4	49.3	47.6	1.7
Average Weekly Out-of-Pocket Cost of Care	$3.47	$6.74	-$3.27**	$5.02	$8.42	-$3.40***
Received a Child Care Subsidy***	51.3	63.4	-12.2	21.3	23.0	-1.7
Child Was in Care at 12 Months of Age***	72.4	57.9	14.5**	65.9	56.2	9.7***
Child Was in Care at 24 Months of Age***	69.2	56.0	8.1	62.3	57.6	4.7
Case Management
Any Case Management Meetings***	85.1	59.0	26.0***	87.0	51.9	35.1***
Weekly Case Management, 1st Follow-Up Period***	44.7	9.7	35.0***	44.6	7.2	37.4***
Weekly Case Management, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	35.8	3.0	32.9***	34.6	6.4	28.2***
Weekly Case Management, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	28.1	4.2	23.9***	30.0	3.9	26.2***
Group Activities
Any Group Parenting Activities***	67.9	31.3	36.6***	71.6	37.1	34.6***
Any Parent-Child Group Activities**	40.7	7.8	32.9***	42.0	15.3	26.6***
Early Intervention Services
Identification of Child's Disability***	7.5	4.8	2.7	7.7	5.7	2.0
Services for Child With Disability***	4.6	1.8	2.8	5.5	3.9	1.6
Child Health Services
Any Child Health Services***	100.0	100.0	0.0	100.0	99.6	0.5
Any Doctor Visits***	99.1	97.6	1.5	98.4	98.0	0.5
Any Emergency Room Visits***	51.4	55.4	-4.0	51.5	51.2	0.3
Number of Emergency Room Visits for Injuries	0.3	0.2	0.0	0.2	0.3	-0.1*
Any Dentist Visits***	29.5	29.1	0.3	28.4	27.2	1.2
Any Screening Tests***	69.0	71.6	-2.6	65.0	62.5	2.5
Any Immunizations***	99.4	96.7	2.7**	98.0	97.9	0.1
Family Development Services
Any Education-Related Services***	84.7	54.1	30.6***	85.0	56.5	28.6***
Any Employment-Related Services***	81.9	63.9	18.1***	72.6	40.3	32.3***
Any Family Health Servicesc	100.0	100.0	0.0	100.0	100.0	0.0
Any Family Mental Health Services***	28.1	23.2	4.9	21.4	22.2	-0.8
Transportation Assistance***	41.5	31.2	10.3**	26.8	20.6	6.2**
Housing Assistance***	73.2	74.9	-1.6	50.6	46.2	4.5
Sample Size	285	265	550	577	534	1,111

SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment.

NOTE: All estimates were calculated using regression models, where each site was weighted equally. Only sites with at least 10 program group members and 10 control group members in the subgroups are included in the estimates for each subgroup.

aHome visits, case management, center-based child care, and/or group parenting activities.(back)

bAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups in the first two columns.(back)

cThere is no variance across subgroups due to lack of variance in level of services.(back)

*Significantly different from zero at the .10 level, two-tailed test.
**Significantly different from zero at the .05 level, two-tailed test.
***Significantly different from zero at the .01 level, two-tailed test.

AFDC = Aid to Families with Dependent Children TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families

TABLE E.VII.3

IMPACTS ON CHILD AND FAMILY OUTCOMES AT AGE 3, BY AFDC/TANF RECEIPT AT ENROLLMENT
Outcome	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect SizeEffect Sizec
	Received AFDC/TANF				Did Not Receive AFDC/TANF
Child Cognitive and Language Development
Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score	90.7	91.1	-0.4	-3.0	90.9	89.8	1.1	8.5
Percentage with MDI < 85***Effect Sized	32.5	21.0	11.5	24.8	27.8	35.2	-7.4**	-15.8
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score	81.6	82.0	-0.4	-2.4	83.7	81.7	1.9	11.8
Percentage with PPVT-III < 85***	55.6	59.5	-4.0	-7.9	50.1	55.4	-5.3	-10.7
Child Social-Emotional Development
Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	4.8	4.7	0.1	6.2	4.8	4.7	0.1	13.1
Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	5.1	4.9	0.2	19.6	5.0	4.9	0.1	12.7
Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task**	4.7	5.0	-0.3*	-28.9	5.1	5.0	0.1	7.4
Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	4.6	4.4	0.2	21.1	4.6	4.6	0.0	1.1
Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation	3.9	3.9	-0.0	-0.7	4.0	4.0	-0.1	-6.9
Bayley BRS: Orientation/ Engagement	3.6	3.7	-0.1	-12.0	3.9	3.8	0.1*	12.2
Negativity Toward Parent During Parent- Child Semistructured Play	1.2	1.4	-0.1	-20.3	1.2	1.3	-0.1**	-17.2
Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	2.5	2.9	-0.3	-25.2	2.8	2.8	-0.0	-0.2
Child Behavior Checklist-Aggressive Behavior	10.9	12.1	-1.2	-18.2	10.6	11.1	-0.4	-6.6
Child Health Status
Child's Health Status	4.1	4.0	0.1	10.3	4.0	4.0	-0.0	-0.3
Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor ***	10.1	9.1	1.0	3.5	6.7	7.8	-1.0	-3.5
Quality of the Home Environment and Parenting: Overall and Physical Environment
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score	26.9	26.6	0.3	5.3	27.5	27.2	0.3	5.4
HOME Internal Physical Environment	7.7	7.8	-0.1	-9.6	7.8	7.9	-0.1	-8.0
Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support
HOME Warmth	2.5	2.5	0.0	2.5	2.5	2.5	-0.0	-0.3
Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	4.0	3.9	0.1	10.3	4.0	3.9	0.1	8.4
Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	4.3	4.5	-0.2	-13.9	4.6	4.5	0.1	4.3
Parenting Behavior: Stimulation of Language and Learning
Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime***	66.9	59.3	7.6	15.4	57.4	57.5	-0.1	-0.2
Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine***	73.9	63.7	10.2*	22.0	68.9	65.9	3.1	6.6
HOME: Support of Language and Learning	10.5	10.2	0.3	13.1	10.5	10.5	0.0	1.7
Parent-Child Play	4.4	4.3	0.1	6.9	4.4	4.4	0.0	0.0
Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	3.6	3.4	0.2	16.1	3.7	3.6	0.1	5.2
Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily***	58.4	49.1	9.3	18.6	55.6	51.9	3.7	7.4
Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime***	40.0	26.3	7.7	16.9	32.0	28.8	3.3	7.2
Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior
Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.3	1.2	0.1	10.4	1.2	1.2	-0.0	-3.8
Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.6	1.6	-0.1	-7.7	1.5	1.6	-0.1	-10.5
Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	1.8	1.6	0.2	22.7	1.6	1.5	0.1	9.0
Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	2.7	2.9	-0.2	-19.2	2.6	2.6	-0.1	-5.7
Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.3	1.4	-0.0	-0.9	1.3	1.2	0.0	5.5
HOME Harshness	0.3	0.3	-0.0	-2.8	0.2	0.3	-0.0	-2.1
Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week***	44.1	54.6	-10.5*	-21.0	47.4	52.0	-4.6	-9.3
Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies
Percentage of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly***	71.0	64.1	6.9	15.0	70.2	71.0	-0.8	-1.8
Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy***	47.9	55.7	-7.8	-15.5	45.5	50.2	-4.7	-9.3
Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only***	43.5	37.6	5.9	12.0	44.5	40.7	3.8	7.7
Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies	3.4	3.7	-0.3*	-17.9	3.3	3.5	-0.1	-8.2
Parent Physical and Mental Health
Parent's Health Status	3.3	3.4	-0.0	-3.1	3.5	3.5	-0.0	-1.9
Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress	25.6	27.0	-1.5	-15.2	24.6	25.3	-0.7	-7.3
PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction	18.2	18.8	-0.7	-10.6	18.0	17.6	0.4	6.4
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form)	8.6	9.0	-0.5	-6.9	6.6	7.1	-0.5	-6.7
CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms ***	19.4	20.4	-1.0	-2.7	11.2	13.5	-2.2	-6.2
Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict	1.7	1.8	-0.1	-15.9	1.7	1.7	0.0	2.0
Father Presence
Currently Married To Biological Father ***	22.1	22.5	-0.4	-0.8	42.4	43.9	-1.4	-2.9
Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent***	37.3	38.8	-1.4	-2.9	55.5	57.5	-2.0	-4.0
Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life***	62.7	61.9	0.9	1.9	79.2	76.1	3.1	6.9
Continuous Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	54.7	63.3	-8.6	-18.8	74.3	74.2	0.1	0.2
No Biological Father Presence Child Age 14- 36 Months***	16.7	15.5	1.2	3.8	8.7	8.7	-0.1	-0.3
Continuous Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	77.5	71.6	5.8	16.3	83.8	87.2	-3.4	-9.5
No Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	2.5	2.3	0.2	1.4	2.0	1.9	0.1	1.0
Sample Size
Bayley	233	205	438		469	406	875
Parent Interview	294	269	563		604	537	1,141
Parent-Child Interactions	234	195	429		471	428	899

SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments, interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months old.

aA participant is defined as a program group member who received more than one Early Head Start home visit, met with an Early Head Start case manager more than once, received at least two weeks of Early Head Start center-based care, and/or participated in Early Head Start group parent-child activities. The control group mean is the mean for the control group members who would have participated in Early Head Start if they had instead been assigned to the program group. This unobserved mean is estimated as the difference between the program group mean for participants and the impact per participant.(back)

bThe estimated impact per participant is measured as the estimated impact per eligible applicant divided by the proportion of program group members who participated in Early Head Start services (which varied by site). The estimated impact per eligible applicant is measured as the difference between the regression-adjusted means for program and control group members.(back)

cThe effect size is calculated by dividing the estimated impact per participant by the standard deviation of the outcome measure for the control group times 100 (that is, it is the impact per participant expressed as a percentage of a standard deviation).(back)

dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back)

TABLE E.VII.4

IMPACTS ON SELF-SUFFICIENCY AT 28 MONTHS, BY AFDC/TANF RECEIPT AT ENROLLMENT
Outcome	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec
	Received AFDC/TANF				Did Not Receive AFDC/TANF
Education/JobTraining
Ever in Education or Training***d	59.1	47.2	11.9**	23.7	56.5	48.6	7.9**	15.8
Ever in High School***	7.9	3.3	4.6*	16.1	11.8	8.1	3.7**	12.8
Ever in ESL Class***	0.6	3.1	-2.5*	-17.2	4.7	3.0	1.7	11.8
Ever in Vocational Program***	20.1	16.7	3.4	9.1	15.6	15.8	-0.3	-0.7
Average Hours per Week in Education or Training	3.6	2.7	0.9	14.4	4.8	3.4	1.4***	21.3
In Education or Training:
1st Quarter***	21.5	22.4	-0.9	-2.1	20.2	21.7	-1.6	-3.8
2nd Quarter***	24.4	24.1	0.3	0.7`	24.6	26.0	-1.4	-3.2
3rd Quarter***	31.6	26.4	5.1	11.8	28.1	23.7	4.5*	10.1
4th Quarter***	28.3	24.2	4.1	9.5	28.8	22.2	6.7**	15.5
5th Quarter***	26.6	26.9	-0.3	-0.6	29.5	22.9	6.6**	15.3
6th Quarter***	23.4	21.5	1.9	4.7	30.5	22.0	8.5***	20.3
7th Quarter***	18.7	13.6	5.1	12.6	28.3	20.5	7.8***	19.4
8th Quarter***	20.1	12.5	7.6*	19.3	26.5	19.5	7.0**	17.8
Have High School Diploma***	38.1	40.8	-2.7	-5.4	54.5	52.6	1.9	3.7
Have GED***	17.8	14.4	3.4	10.8	8.0	7.8	0.1	0.5
Employment
Ever Employed***	82.6	80.8	1.8	4.7	88.1	82.4	5.7**	15.2
Average Hours/Week Employed	13.3	15.8	-2.5	-16.9	19.3	18.4	0.9	6.4
Employed in:
1st Quarter***	25.8	32.3	-6.5	-13.4	46.7	45.1	1.5	3.1
2nd Quarter***	33.5	39.4	-5.8	-11.7	52.9	50.4	2.5	5.0
3rd Quarter***	42.9	43.5	-0.6	-1.3	59.4	56.3	3.2	6.3
4th Quarter***	51.3	42.0	9.3*	18.6	61.7	59.9	1.8	3.6
5th Quarter***	52.5	53.2	-0.7	-1.5	65.5	62.0	3.4	7.0
6th Quarter***	54.3	56.9	-2.5	-5.2	66.3	62.3	4.0	8.2
7th Quarter***	50.7	53.6	-2.9	-5.7	62.2	59.3	2.9	5.8
8th Quarter**	57.8	59.7	-1.9	-4.0	64.3	61.9	2.4	5.0
Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education, Training or Employment)
Ever Employed or in Education/Training***	91.4	88.9	2.5	8.3	93.9	89.8	4.1**	13.6
Average Hours per Week in Any Activity*	17.3	18.8	-1.5	-9.7	24.5	22.0	2.5**	15.9
In Activities in:
1st Quarter***	44.1	43.8	0.3	0.6	57.5	56.7	0.8	1.5
2nd Quarter***	53.6	50.7	3.2	6.5	65.9	62.5	3.4	6.9
3rd Quarter***	63.1	60.0	3.2	6.7	73.0	67.1	5.9**	12.4
4th Quarter***	65.8	56.9	8.9*	18.7	74.9	67.4	7.5***	15.7
5th Quarter***	64.6	67.7	-3.1	-6.6	76.0	69.0	7.0**	15.1
6th Quarter***	68.4	67.9	0.5	1.1	77.6	69.9	7.7***	16.3
7th Quarter***	60.9	61.1	-0.2	-0.4	74.5	67.0	7.5**	15.6
8th Quarter***	68.6	63.5	5.1	10.9	74.9	69.6	5.3*	11.3
AFDC/TANF Receipt
Ever Received AFDC/TANF***	85.8	83.6	2.2	4.5	29.2	27.3	1.9	3.8
Received AFDC/TANF in:
1st Quarter***	78.6	71.9	6.7	14.3	16.0	14.6	1.4	3.0
2nd Quarter***	76.3	72.5	3.8	8.1	17.5	15.5	2.0	4.2
3rd Quarter***	75.3	71.2	4.1	8.6	19.9	20.2	-0.3	-0.7
4th Quarter***	61.5	61.1	0.4	0.8	17.9	17.5	0.4	1.0
5th Quarter***	58.8	59.3	-0.5	-1.2	17.3	18.0	-0.7	-1.5
6th Quarter***	57.8	57.4	0.3	0.7	18.4	19.2	-0.8	-1.7
7th Quarter***	52.5	50.3	2.2	4.9	13.1	14.8	-1.7	-3.8
8th Quarter***	50.7	41.9	8.8	20.7	12.4	13.4	-1.0	-2.4
Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($)*	$6,177	$6,207	-$30	-0.8	$1,041	$1,141	-$100	-2.6
Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits
Ever Received Welfare***	94.7	94.0	0.7	1.6	58.5	54.4	4.2	8.9
Total Welfare Benefits ($)*	$12,690	$12,823	-$133	-1.8	$3,405	$3,779	-$374	-4.9
Ever Received Food Stamps***	89.1	89.9	-0.8	-1.6	50.7	46.1	4.6	9.5
Total Food Stamp Benefits ($)	$4,334	$4,042	$292	10.7	$1,474	$1,408	$66	2.4
Income/Poverty
Income Above Poverty Level***	26.9	32.3	-5.4	-11.0	48.5	47.2	1.4	2.8
Subsequent Births
Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment***	20.7	33.8	-13.1**	-29.1	20.9	22.2	-1.3	-2.8
Sample Size	285	265	550		577	534	1,111

SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment.

dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back)

TABLE E.VII.5

IMPACTS ON SERVICE RECEIPT DURING THE FIRST 28 MONTHS, BY FOCUS CHILD'S GENDER
Any Services
	Female			Male
	Program Group	Group Control	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant	Program Group	Group Control	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant
Any Key Services***a,b	95.4	80.1	15.3***	96.3	83.0	13.3***
Any Home Visits Or Center-Based Child Care***	92.1	56.1	36.0***	93.8	59.9	33.9***
More Than 1 Home Visit or 2 Weeks Center-Based Child Care***	91.2	50.2	40.9***	92.7	53.5	39.1***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in at Least 1 Followup***	74.5	13.1	61.4***	74.0	14.5	59.5***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in All 3 Followups***	30.9	3.7	27.2***	29.8	3.0	26.8***
Home Visits
Any Home Visits***	85.8	33.6	52.2***	88.5	34.2	54.3***
Any Child Development Services During Home Visits***	84.0	31.1	52.8***	88.3	32.1	56.3***
Weekly Home Visits, 1st Follow-Up Period***	43.3	2.9	40.4***	47.5	3.5	44.1***
Weekly Home Visits, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	35.0	2.1	33.0***	35.2	2.7	32.5***
Weekly Home Visits, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	27.5	2.3	25.2***	30.3	2.4	27.9***
Weekly Home Visits in At Least 1 Followup***	55.4	5.4	50.0***	58.1	5.1	53.0***
Weekly Home Visits in All 3 Followups***	17.0	0.3	16.7***	20.1	0.7	19.4***
Child Care
Any Child Care***	85.6	80.7	4.9**	87.3	78.9	8.4***
Any Center-Based Child Care***	50.7	35.4	15.3***	50.3	35.6	14.7***
Average Hours Per Week of Center-Based Care	6.6	3.1	3.5***	5.8	3.3	2.5***
Concurrent Child Care Arrangements***	52.5	47.3	5.2	51.1	41.8	9.3***
Average Weekly Out-of-Pocket Cost of Care	$4.44	$7.05	-$2.62***	$4.51	$7.03	-$2.52**
Received a Child Care Subsidy***	30.6	32.6	-2.0	29.7	32.3	-2.6
Child Was in Care at 12 Months of Age***	67.1	59.1	8.1**	66.4	51.1	15.3***
Child Was in Care at 24 Months of Age***	64.3	57.8	6.5*	61.9	50.3	11.7***
Case Management
Any Case Management Meetings***	86.4	55.3	31.1***	87.6	55.1	32.5***
Weekly Case Management, 1st Follow-Up Period***	45.3	7.5	37.8***	47.1	10.1	37.0***
Weekly Case Management, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	33.0	4.9	28.1***	35.2	5.5	29.7***
Weekly Case Management, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	25.9	4.5	21.4***	31.4	4.7	26.7***
Group Activities
Any Group Parenting Activities	68.7	36.4	32.4***	73.4	38.3	35.1***
Any Parent-Child Group Activities**	40.4	13.7	26.7***	42.8	14.9	27.9***
Early Intervention Services
Identification of Child's Disability***	5.6	3.9	1.7	8.8	7.0	1.8
Services for Child With Disability***	3.7	2.3	1.4	5.6	4.9	0.7
Child Health Services
Any Child Health Services***	100.0	99.8	0.2	100.0	99.7	0.3
Any Doctor Visits***	99.4	98.0	1.4**	98.5	99.0	-0.4
Any Emergency Room Visits***	48.1	50.8	-2.7	60.2	56.0	4.2
Number of Emergency Room Visits for Injuries	0.2	0.3	-0.1*	0.3	0.3	0.0
Any Dentist Visits***	32.0	24.0	8.0***	24.5	29.0	-4.5
Any Screening Tests***	66.9	66.8	0.1	66.9	66.6	0.3
Any Immunizations***	99.4	97.5	1.8**	98.2	98.0	0.1
Family Development Services
Any Education-Related Services***	87.3	60.3	27.0***	87.8	56.5	31.2***
Any Employment-Related Services***	76.8	47.6	29.1***	76.7	44.7	32.0***
Any Family Health Servicesc	100.0	100.0	0.0	100.0	100.0	0.0
Any Family Mental Health Services***	21.9	18.6	3.3	23.3	24.7	-1.5
Transportation Assistance***	31.0	22.3	8.6***	35.3	23.3	12.0***
Housing Assistance***	57.6	57.0	0.6	58.7	56.9	1.9
Sample Size	530	503	1,033	545	508	1,053

SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment.

aHome visits, case management, center-based child care, and/or group parenting activities.(back)

bAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups in the first two columns.(back)

cThere is no variance across subgroups due to lack of variance in level of services.(back)

TABLE E.VII.6

IMPACTS ON CHILD AND FAMILY OUTCOMES AT AGE 3, BY FOCUS CHILD'S GENDER
Outcome	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec
	Female				Male
Child Cognitive and Language Development
Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score	92.2	90.9	1.4	10.6	90.8	89.0	1.8**	13.9
Percentage with MDI < 85***d	26.9	29.2	-2.3	-4.9	27.6	34.0	-6.4*	-13.8
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score	86.0	83.7	2.3*	14.2	82.2	80.7	1.5	8.9
Percentage with PPVT-III < 85***	42.9	47.9	-5.0	-9.9	55.7	60.3	-4.6	-9.3
Child Social-Emotional Development
Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	4.9	4.7	0.2**	19.4	4.8	4.6	0.2**	17.9
Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	5.1	4.9	0.2**	15.6	4.9	4.8	0.2**	16.0
Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	5.0	4.9	0.1*	14.7	5.0	5.0	0.0	1.5
Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	4.8	4.6	0.1	10.6	4.4	4.3	0.1	5.7
Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation	4.1	4.1	-0.0	-0.5	3.9	3.9	0.0	0.1
Bayley BRS: Orientation/ Engagement	3.9	3.9	0.1	6.5	3.8	3.8	0.0	0.9
Negativity Toward Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play**	1.3	1.3	0.0	0.6	1.2	1.4	-0.2***	-25.0
Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	2.7	2.7	0.0	0.1	2.7	2.7	0.0	1.8
Child Behavior Checklist-Aggressive Behavior	10.2	10.7	-0.5	-8.3	11.1	11.8	-0.7	-10.5
Child Health Status
Child's Health Status*	4.0	4.1	-0.1	-11.3	4.0	4.0	0.1	6.9
Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor Health*	7.9	8.2	-0.3	-1.1	8.3	8.7	-0.4	-1.3
Quality of the Home Environment and Parenting: Overall and Physical Environment
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score	28.0	27.2	0.8**	15.7	27.2	27.0	0.2	4.2
HOME Internal Physical Environment	7.9	7.9	0.1	4.9	7.8	7.8	-0.1	-4.5
Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support
HOME Warmth	2.6	2.5	0.1	10.1	2.6	2.5	0.1	7.1
Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	4.1	3.9	0.2**	19.0	3.9	3.9	0.1	8.6
Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	4.4	4.4	0.0	2.7	4.5	4.4	0.0	2.8
Parenting Behavior:Stimulation of Language and Learning
Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime***	58.4	59.6	-1.2	-2.5	60.0	56.7	3.3	6.7
HOME: Support of Language and Learning	10.8	10.5	0.3**	15.3	10.5	10.4	0.1	3.4
Parent-Child Play	4.5	4.4	0.1*	13.5	4.4	4.3	0.0	3.8
Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	3.6	3.5	0.1	7.7	3.6	3.5	0.1	8.6
Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine***	70.7	69.0	1.6	3.5	67.5	68.3	-0.8	-1.6
Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily***	59.2	54.8	4.5	8.9	55.3	49.3	6.0*	12.0
Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime***	34.8	30.9	3.9	8.7	30.0	27.3	2.7	6.0
Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior
Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.2	1.3	-0.1	-8.7	1.2	1.3	-0.1	-8.0
Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.6	1.6	0.0	2.8	1.6	1.7	-0.1	-11.2
Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	1.6	1.6	0.1	6.6	1.7	1.7	-0.0	-3.6
Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	2.6	2.7	-0.1	-5.6	2.7	2.8	-0.1	-8.1
Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.3	1.3	0.0	6.9	1.3	1.3	-0.1	-8.2
HOME Harshness	0.2	0.2	-0.0	-2.3	0.3	0.3	0.0	6.3
Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week***	43.4	52.1	-8.8**	-17.5	49.5	54.8	-5.4	-10.7
Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies
Percentage of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly***	71.2	70.4	0.8	1.7	69.0	71.6	-2.6	-5.6
Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy***	46.1	52.4	-6.3**	-12.6	46.1	49.4	-3.3	-6.6
Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only***	44.9	38.6	6.3*	12.8	44.4	42.3	2.1	4.3
Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies	3.3	3.6	-0.3**	-15.3	3.4	3.5	-0.1	-6.4
Parent Physical and Mental Health
Parent's Health Status*	3.4	3.5	-0.1*	-13.7	3.5	3.5	0.0	3.4
Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress	24.5	24.9	-0.4	-4.1	24.8	25.8	-0.9	-9.8
PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction	17.4	17.2	0.2	2.6	18.1	18.2	-0.1	-0.9
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form)	7.3	7.6	-0.3	-3.6	7.4	7.6	-0.2	-2.2
CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms ***	14.8	15.0	0.2	-0.5	14.3	14.2	0.2	0.4
Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict	1.6	1.7	-0.1	-9.2	1.7	1.7	0.0	1.5
Father Presence
Currently Married To Biological Father ***	36.6	37.2	-0.6	-1.2	33.1	35.2	-2.0	-4.2
Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent***	48.4	51.9	-3.5	-7.1	49.4	49.5	-0.2	-0.4
Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life***	73.3	69.9	3.3	7.5	72.5	71.3	1.2	2.7
Continuous Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	68.0	66.0	2.0	4.4	66.7	69.4	-2.7	-5.9
No Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	12.2	14.8	-2.6	-8.4	12.6	10.0	2.6	8.2
Continuous Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	80.7	82.4	-1.8	-4.9	78.4	82.8	-4.3	-12.1
No Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	2.8	1.9	0.9	7.7	2.0	1.8	0.2	2.0
Sample Size
Bayley	444	399	843	435	380	815
Parent Interview	542	500	1,042	565	502	1,067
Parent-Child Interactions	431	394	825	443	390	833

SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments, interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months old.

dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back)

TABLE E.VII.7

IMPACTS ON SELF-SUFFICIENCY AT 28 MONTHS, BY FOCUS CHILD'S GENDER
Outcome	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec
	Female				Male
Education/Job Training
Ever in Education or Training***d	61.2	53.0	8.2**	16.3	59.4	50.0	9.4***	18.7
Ever in High School***	12.1	8.5	3.6*	12.6	15.0	10.1	4.9***	17.2
Ever in ESL Class***	4.2	2.6	1.5	10.7	3.2	2.3	0.9	6.2
Ever in Vocational Program***	19.2	16.6	2.6	6.9	20.5	16.7	3.9	10.3
Average Hours per Week in Education or Training	4.3	3.4	0.9**	14.7	5.0	3.4	1.6***	25.5
In Education or Training:
1st Quarter***	24.4	23.1	1.3	3.1	20.9	21.7	-0.8	-1.9
2nd Quarter***	29.3	25.5	3.8	8.9	26.1	24.7	1.3	3.1
3rd Quarter***	33.3	28.1	5.2*	11.8	30.8	25.0	5.8**	13.2
4th Quarter***	30.4	27.4	3.0	7.0	31.9	22.1	9.8***	22.9
5th Quarter***	29.6	28.4	1.1	2.7	32.3	21.7	10.6***	24.7
6th Quarter***	27.6	24.5	3.1	7.4	32.3	21.1	11.1***	26.8
7th Quarter***	25.4	21.9	3.5	8.6	27.5	21.1	6.4**	15.9
8th Quarter***	24.7	19.8	4.9	12.4	28.5	20.3	8.3***	21.0
Have High School Diploma***	52.7	48.8	3.9	7.8	48.0	49.4	-1.4	-2.8
Have GED***	10.0	11.5	-1.6	-4.9	10.3	10.5	-0.1	-0.4
Employment
Ever Employed***	87.5	82.3	5.2**	13.9	88.3	84.1	2.2	5.8
Average Hours/Week Employed	18.4	16.9	1.5	10.5	16.2	16.9	-0.8	-5.2
Employed in:
1st Quarter***	39.3	36.5	2.8	5.7	39.4	40.3	-0.9	-1.9
2nd Quarter***	48.4	44.1	4.3	8.7	43.8	45.9	-2.1	-4.2
3rd Quarter***	56.7	51.7	5.2	10.4	50.0	51.3	-1.3	-2.6
4th Quarter***	58.2	55.1	3.1	6.3	56.0	54.3	1.7	3.4
5th Quarter***	65.1	58.1	7.0**	14.3	58.7	60.8	-2.1	-4.3
6th Quarter***	68.5	59.7	8.7**	17.7	59.9	58.0	1.9	3.8
7th Quarter***	63.7	57.6	6.1*	12.2	57.0	56.1	0.9	1.8
8th Quarter***	66.1	62.6	3.5	7.2	60.8	58.9	1.8	3.8
Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education,Training, or Employment)
Ever Employed or in Education/Training***	94.3	89.7	4.6**	15.2	93.5	91.1	2.4	8.0
Average Hours per Week in Any Activity	23.2	20.4	2.8**	17.6	21.8	20.7	1.1	7.2
In Activities in:
1st Quarter***	54.5	50.4	4.2	8.3	53.6	53.4	0.2	0.5
2nd Quarter***	65.9	57.4	8.5***	17.2	60.4	58.9	1.5	3.0
3rd Quarter***	74.7	65.8	8.9***	18.8	67.4	64.6	2.8	5.9
4th Quarter***	74.3	67.5	6.8**	14.2	71.2	63.7	7.5***	15.6
5th Quarter***	77.8	69.9	7.9***	17.1	72.2	69.5	2.7	5.8
6th Quarter***	80.0	69.7	10.3***	21.9	74.3	66.0	8.3***	17.7
7th Quarter***	75.6	66.1	9.4***	19.7	68.3	64.6	3.7	7.8
8th Quarter***	75.9	69.6	6.3*	13.6	72.4	67.5	4.9	10.4
AFDC/TANF Receipt
Ever Received AFDC/TANF***	46.2	44.8	1.3	2.7	47.7	44.9	2.8	5.7
Received AFDC/TANF in:
1st Quarter***	33.1	30.1	3.1	6.6	34.5	31.4	3.2	6.8
2nd Quarter***	34.7	33.2	1.5	3.2	34.3	33.0	1.3	2.8
3rd Quarter***	35.1	34.4	0.7	1.5	37.9	34.6	3.3	6.9
4th Quarter***	27.7	31.1	-3.4	-7.4	32.7	28.9	3.8	8.2
5th Quarter***	27.9	30.2	-2.4	-5.2	31.4	28.2	3.1	6.8
6th Quarter***	24.8	30.5	-5.7***	-12.3	32.6	28.9	3.7	8.0
7th Quarter***	18.9	26.0	-7.1**	-16.2	25.9	25.0	0.9	2.0
8th Quarter***	19.2	23.2	-4.0	-9.4	24.6	22.3	2.3	5.4
Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($)*	$1,894	$2,121	-$237	-6.1	$2,378	$2,170	$209	5.4
Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits
Ever Received Welfare***	66.4	68.0	-1.6	-3.5	69.2	65.4	3.9*	8.2
Total Welfare Benefits ($)*	$4,893	$5,243	-$350	-4.6	$5,694	$5,720	-$26	-0.3
Ever Received Food Stamps***	59.7	59.7	0.0	0.1	61.0	59.3	1.8	3.6
Total Food Stamp Benefits ($)	$2,069	$1,966	$104	3.8	$2,130	$2,214	-$84	-3.1`
Income/Poverty
Income Above Poverty Level***	47.0	45.9	1.1	2.2	39.5	41.1	-1.6	-3.3
Subsequent Births
Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment***	23.7	28.4	-4.7	-10.5	22.8	28.0	-5.3	-11.7
Sample Size	530	503	1,033		545	508	1,053

SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment.

dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back)

TABLE E.VII.8

IMPACTS ON SERVICE RECEIPT DURING THE FIRST 28 MONTHS, BY LABOR FORCE STATUS AT ENROLLMENT
Any Services
	Employed			In School or Training			Neither Employed nor in School/Training
	Program Group	Control Group	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant	Program Group	Control Group	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant	Program Group	Control Group	Impact Estimate per Eligible Applicant
Any Key Services***a,b	99.2	87.0	12.2***	94.1	78.4	15.7***	96.8	80.1	16.7***
Any Home Visits Or Center-Based Child Care***	99.3	63.8	35.5***	89.7	56.2	33.5***	91.6	53.2	38.4***
More Than 1 Home Visit or 2 Weeks Center-Based Child Care***	97.4	59.1	38.3***	89.9	44.3	45.7***	90.9	46.7	44.2***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in at Least 1 Followup***	77.7	13.9	63.8***	71.2	12.9	58.3***	78.7	12.6	66.1***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in All 3 Followups***	37.0	9.6	27.4***	20.3	2.5	17.8***	35.0	1.8	33.2***
Home Visits
Any Home Visits***	94.1	37.1	57.0***	80.2	33.2	47.0***	86.3	33.3	53.0***
Any Child Development Services During Home Visits***	93.3	34.1	59.2***	79.7	31.8	47.9***	85.1	29.7	55.4***
Weekly Home Visits, 1st Follow-Up Period***	45.4	4.9	40.6***	43.9	2.4	41.5***	47.9	3.3	44.5***
Weekly Home Visits, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	35.5	1.8	33.7***	27.7	1.2	26.5***	39.9	3.0	36.9***
Weekly Home Visits, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	32.1	2.5	29.6***	22.9	4.1	18.8***	32.3	2.7	29.6***
Weekly Home Visits in At Least 1 Followup***	60.9	3.8	57.0***	54.3	4.6	49.7***	59.9	5.2	54.7***
Weekly Home Visits in All 3 Followups***	25.5	0.9	24.7***	13.3	0.7	12.6***	22.0	1.3	20.7***
Child Care
Any Child Care***	95.4	93.0	2.3	93.7	89.3	4.4	79.7	71.5	8.2***
Any Center-Based Child Care***	50.3	39.1	11.2**	56.0	31.2	24.8***	47.0	30.3	16.7***
Average Hours Per Week of Center-Based Care	8.5	5.6	2.9*	5.8	2.4	3.4***	6.0	2.3	3.8***
Concurrent Child Care Arrangements***	60.8	61.9	-1.1	61.8	55.7	6.1	43.3	37.4	5.9*
Average Weekly Out-of-Pocket Cost of Care***	$4.84	$12.45	-$7.61***	$4.61	$3.75	$0.86	$3.74	$6.48	-$2.73***
Received a Child Care Subsidy***	24.7	41.2	-16.5*	47.8	38.9	8.9	27.8	30.0	-2.2
Child Was in Care at 12 Months of Age***	82.3	81.8	0.5	82.4	73.8	8.6	50.4	42.1	8.3**
Child Was in Care at 24 Months of Age***	74.7	74.2	0.5	72.4	67.5	4.9	51.3	41.2	10.1**
Case Management
Any Case Management Meetings***	92.0	60.0	32.0***	83.1	57.8	25.4***	87.5	56.4	31.1***
Weekly Case Management, 1st Follow-Up Period***	57.0	13.9	43.1***	50.7	5.7	45.0***	48.9	9.0	39.8***
Weekly Case Management, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	41.6	4.2	37.5***	25.9	2.0	23.9***	38.0	6.8	31.2***
Weekly Case Management, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	36.6	3.2	33.4***	19.6	4.2	15.5***	29.6	5.7	23.9***
Group Activities
Any Group Parenting Activities***	71.1	35.4	35.6***	64.7	43.4	21.3***	73.4	35.1	38.3***
Any Parent-Child Group Activities***	43.2	17.8	25.4***	36.5	15.5	21.0***	44.2	14.8	29.3***
Early Intervention Services
Identification of Child's Disability***	11.8	9.0	2.7	2.8	4.9	-2.1	9.0	6.2	2.8*
Services for Child With Disability***	9.9	7.1	2.8	1.4	2.1	-0.7	5.6	3.6	1.9
Child Health Services
Any Child Health Services***	100.0	100.0	0.0	99.9	99.8	0.1	100.0	99.9	0.1
Any Doctor Visits***	98.4	98.5	-0.1	99.6	98.4	1.2	99.1	98.6	0.6
Any Emergency Room Visits***	48.0	53.0	-5.0	60.6	57.0	3.6	55.9	53.4	2.5
Number of Emergency Room Visits for Injuries	0.2	0.4	-0.2*	0.3	0.4	-0.1	0.2	0.2	0.0
Any Dentist Visits***	28.7	26.8	1.8	23.9	28.6	-4.7	30.0	26.7	3.3
Any Screening Tests***	63.8	68.1	-4.2	66.1	71.1	-5.1	68.3	65.3	3.0
Any Immunizations***	99.4	97.8	1.6	98.4	97.9	0.5	99.0	97.7	1.3
Family Development Services
Any Education-Related Services***	86.5	48.5	38.0***	93.1	84.3	8.8**	84.7	52.0	32.7***
Any Employment-Related Services***	74.8	37.8	36.9***	76.1	55.6	20.5***	79.4	47.3	32.1***
Any Family Health Servicesc	100.0	100.0	0.0	100.0	100.0	0.0	100.0	100.0	0.0
Any Family Mental Health Services***	23.7	23.5	0.2	18.0	16.6	1.4	25.2	23.0	2.2
Transportation Assistance***	25.9	16.4	9.6**	29.0	35.0	-6.1	35.2	21.2	14.0***
Housing Assistance***	51.3	47.7	3.6	58.2	63.7	-5.5	63.3	56.8	6.4**
Sample Size	253	226	479	231	205	436	557	544	1,101

SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment.

aHome visits, case management, center-based child care, and/or group parenting activities.(back)

bAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups in the first two columns. The third column is a subset of the second column and is included to aid interpretation of subgroup differences.(back)

cThere is no variance across subgroups due to lack of variance in level of services.(back)

TABLE E.VII.9

IMPACTS ON CHILD AND FAMILY OUTCOMES AT AGE 3, BY LABOR FORCE STATUS AT ENROLLMENT
Outcome	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec
	Employed				In School or Training				Neither Employed nor in School/Training
Child Cognitive and Language Development
Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) Standard Score	93.5	91.6	1.9	14.4	90.7	89.6	1.1	8.3	92.0	90.0	2.0**	15.8
Percentage with MDI < 85***d	21.6	27.5	-5.9	-12.7	24.2	35.9	-11.7	-25.1	26.3	32.1	-5.8	-12.5
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-III Standard Score	86.6	83.1	3.5	21.3	82.3	78.8	3.4	21.0	82.7	81.6	1.2	7.2
Percentage with PPVT-III < 85***	44.7	48.3	-3.6	-7.2	54.4	64.6	-10.2	-20.5	49.5	57.8	-8.3*	-16.6
Child Social-Emotional Development
Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play*	4.8	4.6	0.3*	25.3	4.9	4.4	0.5**	44.2	4.7	4.7	0.0	3.1
Sustained Attention with Objects During Parent-Child Semistructured Play**	5.1	4.7	0.4***	38.8	5.1	4.6	0.5***	50.0	4.9	4.9	-0.0	-1.3
Engagement of Parent During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	5.0	5.0	0.0	1.1	5.1	4.7	0.4*	37.5	5.0	5.0	0.0	1.6
Persistence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	4.6	4.5	0.1	8.4	4.7	4.2	0.5**	44.1	4.5	4.5	-0.0	-2.0
Bayley Behavioral Rating Scale (BRS): Emotional Regulation	4.1	4.0	0.1	8.3	4.1	4.1	0.1	11.1	4.0	4.0	-0.0	-2.6
Bayley BRS: Orientation/Engagement	3.8	3.8	-0.1	-7.1	4.0	3.8	0.1	15.9	3.9	3.8	0.1	7.8
Negativity Toward Parent During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.2	1.3	-0.1*	-23.6	1.2	1.3	-0.1	-17.0	1.3	1.3	-0.1	-8.3
Frustration During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task**	2.7	2.9	-0.2	-17.4	2.2	2.8	-0.7**	-50.4	2.8	2.7	0.1	5.2
Child Behavior Checklist-Aggressive Behavior	11.1	11.1	-0.0	-0.6	9.9	11.0	-1.1	-16.9	11.1	11.6	-0.6	-8.5
Child Health Status
Child's Health Status	4.1	4.1	0.0	1.7	4.0	4.1	-0.1	-7.5	4.0	4.0	-0.1	-5.5
Percentage of Children in Fair or Poor Health***	5.5	10.1	-4.6	-16.2	8.6	4.9	3.7	13.0	9.7	7.7	2.0	7.2
Quality of the Home Environment and Parenting: Overall and Physical Environment
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Total Score	27.7	27.1	0.7	13.4	26.5	26.4	0.2	3.9	27.7	27.0	0.7**	13.9
HOME Internal Physical Environment	7.8	7.9	-0.1	-8.0	7.6	7.6	-0.0	-1.9	7.9	7.8	0.1	5.4
Parenting Behavior: Emotional Support
HOME Warmth	2.7	2.6	0.1	14.6	2.4	2.3	0.1	5.5	2.6	2.5	0.1*	12.8
Supportiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	4.1	4.0	0.2	16.1	3.9	3.7	0.3	28.6	4.0	3.9	0.1	5.0
Supportive Presence During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	4.8	4.8	-0.0	-0.8	4.1	4.1	-0.0	-0.2	4.5	4.4	0.1	7.8
Parenting Behavior: Stimulation of Language and Learning
Percentage of Children with a Regular Bedtime***	61.5	54.9	6.6	13.4	53.0	33.6	-0.6	-1.2	62.2	61.6	0.6	1.2
Percentage of Children Who Follow a Bedtime Routine***	77.2	67.9	9.3*	20.0	67.3	61.7	3.6	7.7	69.0	70.0	-1.0	-2.1
HOME: Support of Language and Learning	10.7	10.4	0.3	13.5	10.4	10.2	0.2	7.0	10.6	10.3	0.3**	14.0
Parent-Child Play	4.3	4.4	-0.1	-9.7	4.6	4.4	0.1	17.0	24.4	4.4	0.1	11.9
Quality of Assistance During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	3.8	3.7	0.1	9.3	3.6	3.3	0.3	26.9	3.6	3.5	0.1	8.7
Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child Daily***	57.3	53.5	3.8	7.6	57.5	55.8	1.7	3.4	58.8	50.0	8.7**	17.5
Percentage of Parents Who Read to Child at Bedtime***	41.0	31.5	9.6*	21.0	26.5	39.8	-13.3*	-29.3	33.0	27.1	5.8*	12.9
Parenting Behavior: Negative Parenting Behavior
Detachment During Parent-Child Semistructured Play	1.2	1.2	-0.0	-1.8	1.5	1.4	0.1	15.5	1.2	1.2	-0.1	-8.3
Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Semistructured Play*	1.3	1.5	-0.2**	-26.4	1.8	1.7	0.1	6.1	1.5	1.5	0.0	5.2
Detachment During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	1.4	1.6	-0.2	-18.7	2.0	1.7	0.3	28.1	1.7	1.6	-0.1	9.8
Intrusiveness During Parent-Child Puzzle Challenge Task	2.4	2.7	-0.3**	-26.1	3.0	3.1	-0.1	-9.3	2.7	2.7	0.1	4.4
Negative Regard During Parent-Child Semistructured Play**	1.1	1.3	-0.2***	-32.1	1.4	1.4	0.1	12.9	1.3	1.2	0.0	6.8
HOME Harshness	0.3	0.3	-0.1	-2.2	0.4	0.3	0.1	10.9	0.3	0.2	0.0	7.1
Percentage of Parents Who Spanked Child in the Past Week***	43.6	53.6	-10.1*	-20.2	51.8	63.7	-12.0	-24.0	45.3	50.3	-5.0	-10.1
Knowledge of Safety Practices and Discipline Strategies
Percentage of Parents Who Usually Use a Car Seat Correctly***	77.4	74.2	3.2	7.0	60.2	73.0	-12.8*	-27.8	73.0	71.1	1.9	4.1
Percentage of Parents Suggesting Physical Punishment as a Discipline Strategy***	38.5	46.1	-7.6	-15.1	59.9	60.5	-0.6	-1.2	41.7	48.7	-7.1**	-14.1
Percentage of Parents Who Would Use Mild Discipline Only***	53.5	48.4	5.1	10.4	31.7	32.7	-1.0	-2.0	49.1	42.7	6.3*	12.9
Index of Severity of Discipline Strategies	3.1	3.3	-0.2	-11.4	3.9	3.8	0.1	4.5	3.2	3.5	-0.3***	-17.7
Parent Physical and Mental Health
Parent's Health Status	3.6	3.4	0.2	15.6	3.6	3.6	-0.0	-1.8	3.3	3.4	-0.1	-8.6
Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Parental Distress	24.9	23.8	1.2	12.2	23.6	25.5	-1.9	-19.8	25.0	25.8	-0.8	-8.2
PSI Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction	17.6	16.9	0.7	11.0	17.5	18.6	-1.2	-19.1	18.0	17.8	0.2	3.4
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D; Short Form)	7.2	8.0	-0.9	-12.6	7.9	7.7	0.2	2.8	7.8	7.9	-0.1	-1.6
CES-D Severe Depressive Symptoms ***	13.6	17.6	-4.0	-11.2	17.7	11.4	6.4	17.6	16.4	16.8	-0.3	-0.9
Family Environment Scale (FES): Family Conflict	1.7	1.7	-0.1	-10.4	1.6	1.7	-0.1	-9.0	1.6	1.7	-0.0	-6.9
Father Presence
Currently Married To Biological Father ***	45.1	39.2	5.9	12.1	14.9	18.6	-3.7	-7.7	41.3	44.1	-2.8	-5.7
Biological Father is Currently Married to, Lives with, or is Boyfriend of Respondent***	58.2	51.9	6.3	12.7	36.2	36.4	-0.2	-0.4	55.7	57.2	-1.6	-3.1
Biological Father Currently Present in Child's Life***	75.9	68.9	7.0	15.6	63.5	62.5	1.1	2.3	76.8	74.0	2.8	6.1
Continuous Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	64.9	64.3	0.6	1.2	51.1	61.3	-10.3	-22.3	74.3	74.4	-0.1	-0.2
No Biological Father Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	13.7	15.8	-2.1	-6.7	15.7	13.3	2.5	7.9	9.2	8.6	0.6	1.8
Continuous Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	81.9	89.4	-7.6	-21.1	75.4	78.3	-2.8	-7.9	82.3	84.5	-2.2	-6.2
No Male Presence Child Age 14-36 Months***	4.5	1.9	2.7	22.3	1.9	1.8	0.1	0.9	0.7	1.4	-0.8	-6.4
Sample Size
Bayley	226	178	404		194	158	352		425	413	838
Parent Interview	270	230	500		234	201	435		567	535	1,102
Parent-Child Interactions	224	188	412		193	154	347		427	411	838

SOURCE: Parent interviews, child assessments, interviewer observations, and assessments of semistructured parent-child interactions conducted when children were approximately 36 months old.

dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back)

TABLE E.VII.10

IMPACTS ON SELF-SUFFICIENCY AT 28 MONTHS, BY LABOR FORCE STATUS AT ENROLLMENT
Outcome	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec	Program Group Participants	Control Groupa	Impact Estimate per Participantb	Effect Sizec
	Employed				In School or Training				Neither Employed nor in School/Training
Education/Job Training
Ever in Education or Training***d	52.4	41.5	10.8*	21.6	82.7	78.2	4.5	9.1	53.8	43.5	10.3***	20.6
Ever in High School***	4.1	1.7	2.4	8.3	38.8	26.3	12.5**	43.9	3.4	2.6	0.7	2.6
Ever in ESL Class***	4.5	1.6	2.9	20.0	-0.1	0.7	-0.9	-5.9	3.8	3.4	0.4	3.0
Ever in Vocational Program***	17.2	13.9	3.4	8.9	25.6	20.7	4.9	13.0	18.7	16.9	1.7	4.6
Average Hours per Week in Education or Training	2.6	1.8	0.8	12.9	9.9	7.6	2.3*	36.4	2.7	2.0	0.7*	10.3
In Education or Training:
1st Quarter***	14.4	20.0	-5.6*	-13.6	55.1	54.1	1.0	2.4	13.1	13.0	0.2	0.4
2nd Quarter***	17.3	20.1	-2.9	-6.6	56.7	54.9	1.8	4.2	17.5	15.9	1.6	3.7
3rd Quarter***	21.2	19.2	2.0	4.4	62.9	51.8	11.1*	25.2	22.0	17.8	4.2	9.4
4th Quarter***	23.1	20.7	2.4	5.6	58.0	44.8	13.2**	30.8	23.7	17.5	6.2**	14.4
5th Quarter***	24.5	18.8	5.7	13.3	54.1	47.6	6.6	15.2	24.1	17.7	6.3**	14.7
6th Quarter***	23.5	16.8	6.8	16.3	56.5	44.6	12.0*	28.8	23.0	16.7	6.2**	15.0
7th Quarter***	21.1	15.9	5.3	13.1	42.8	32.7	10.1	25.2	18.0	16.9	1.1	2.7
8th Quarter***	23.0	12.3	10.7**	27.3	39.7	33.1	6.6	16.8	19.7	15.3	4.4	11.1
Have High School Diploma***	62.5	60.0	2.6	5.1	47.5	44.5	3.0	6.0	47.5	48.7	-1.2	-2.3
Have GED***	8.1	11.3	-3.2	-10.1	13.6	12.8	0.9	2.7	11.7	12.6	-0.9	-2.8
Employment
Ever Employed***	95.4	96.7	-1.3	-3.5	84.9	87.9	-2.9	-7.8	83.8	77.4	6.4**	17.1
Average Hours/Week Employed	28.3	27.4	1.0	6.6	11.9	13.8	-1.9	-12.7	14.3	14.0	0.3	2.1
Employed in:
1st Quarter***	77.1	71.6	5.5	11.4	26.8	31.8	-5.0	-10.4	28.9	29.4	-0.5	-1.0
2nd Quarter***	79.4	71.1	8.3**	16.7	38.2	38.0	0.2	0.4	35.9	39.7	-3.8	-7.7
3rd Quarter***	83.1	78.8	4.4	8.7	47.0	51.2	-4.3	-8.5	44.5	42.3	2.2	4.5
4th Quarter***	81.3	81.3	0.0	0.0	53.6	54.6	-1.0	-2.0	48.6	46.8	1.8	3.7
5th Quarter***	84.1	84.1	0.0	0.0	57.6	61.2	-3.6	-7.3	54.1	52.6	1.6	3.2
6th Quarter***	82.2	77.1	5.1	10.3	53.5	61.7	-8.2	-16.6	57.7	52.9	4.8	9.6
7th Quarter***	76.5	76.8	-0.3	-0.6	49.2	56.2	-7.1	-14.3	54.3	49.8	4.5	9.2
8th Quarter***	75.6	79.1	-3.5	-7.1	52.0	61.9	-9.9	-20.2	60.0	54.8	5.2	10.7
Any Self-Sufficiency-Oriented Activity (Education,Training or Employment)
Ever Employed or in Education/Training***	96.5	97.8	-1.3	-4.1	98.5	96.4	2.1	7.0	90.6	86.1	4.5*	14.7
Average Hours per Week in Any Activity	30.8	28.8	2.0	12.5	23.4	22.2	1.2	7.4	17.1	16.3	0.8	4.9
1st Quarter***	79.7	75.8	4.0	7.9	67.4	68.1	-0.7	-1.4	37.4	39.3	-1.8	-3.7
2nd Quarter***	82.2	74.4	7.8**	15.7	77.4	73.1	4.3	8.7	47.8	50.0	-2.0	-4.0
3rd Quarter***	87.3	83.1	4.2	8.8	83.0	79.5	3.6	7.5	58.0	53.5	4.6	9.6
4th Quarter***	87.2	85.1	2.2	4.5	83.9	78.8	5.2	10.8	62.1	55.0	7.1**	14.9
5th Quarter***	87.4	86.7	0.7	1.6	85.6	82.0	3.6	7.8	65.3	60.4	4.9	10.6
6th Quarter***	83.8	78.3	5.5	11.7	83.6	80.3	3.3	7.1	68.9	60.0	8.9**	19.0
7th Quarter***	79.5	79.4	0.1	0.3	72.3	73.3	-1.0	-2.1	64.3	57.7	6.6*	13.8
8th Quarter***	79.1	81.2	-2.1	-4.5	72.8	77.1	-4.2	-9.1	69.9	61.6	8.3**	17.8
AFDC/TANF Receipt
Ever Received AFDC/TANF***	31.6	32.2	-0.6	-1.2	51.0	54.7	-3.7	-7.5	51.7	46.3	5.4**	10.8
Received AFDC/TANF in:
1st Quarter***	16.7	17.1	-0.4	-0.9	37.3	31.0	6.3	13.5	40.3	36.7	3.6	7.8
2nd Quarter***	18.0	20.8	-2.8	-5.9	37.2	35.6	1.6	3.3	40.0	38.2	1.7	3.7
3rd Quarter***	22.7	22.9	-0.3	-0.6	40.1	40.5	-0.4	-0.9	41.9	37.4	4.6*	9.5
4th Quarter***	18.2	21.9	-3.8	-8.1	33.2	38.2	-5.0	-10.8	35.9	32.3	3.6	7.8
5th Quarter***	14.0	20.8	-6.8**	-14.8	35.7	33.9	1.7	3.8	35.0	31.4	3.7	8.0
6th Quarter***	12.3	18.2	-5.8	-12.6	28.9	35.9	-7.0	-15.2	35.8	31.8	4.0	8.8
7th Quarter***	10.7	14.7	-4.0	-9.1	27.3	35.6	-8.3	-18.8	27.6	26.8	0.9	2.0
8th Quarter***	9.6	10.5	-0.9	-2.1	27.5	35.0	-7.5	-17.7	27.8	24.0	3.8	8.9
Total AFDC/TANF Benefits ($)*	$583	$533	$50	1.3	$1,815	$2,064	-$248	-6.4	$2,852	$2,563	$290	7.5
Receipt of Other Welfare Benefits
Ever Received Welfare***	59.6	57.2	2.4	5.1	68.6	75.1	-6.5	-13.9	72.2	67.6	4.6*	9.9
Total Welfare Benefits ($)*	$2,332	$3,263	-$931	-12.3	$4,674	$3,405	$1,270	16.8	$6,870	$6,624	$246	3.3
Ever Received Food Stamps***	52.8	53.9	-1.1	-2.2	57.3	63.6	-6.3	-12.9	64.8	62.4	2.4	4.8
Total Food Stamp Benefits ($)	$1,038	$1,177	-$139	-5.1	$2,312	$2,425	-$114	-4.2	$2,531	$2,435	$96	3.5
Income/Poverty
Income Above Poverty Level***	46.7	50.8	-4.1	-8.3	33.3	27.6	5.7	11.5	41.1	44.1	-3.0	-6.0
Subsequent Births
Subsequent Birth by 24 Months after Random Assignment***	22.0	27.4	-5.4	-12.1	25.7	37.7	-12.0*	-26.8	23.9	31.4	-7.5**	-16.7
Sample Size	253	226	479		231	205	436		557	544	1,101

SOURCE: Parent Services Follow-Up Interviews completed an average of 7, 16, and 28 months after random assignment.

dAsterisks next to variable names indicate significance levels for statistical tests of differences in impacts across the subgroups.(back)

TABLE E.VII.11

IMPACTS ON SERVICE RECEIPT DURING THE FIRST 28 MONTHS, BY HIGHEST GRADE COMPLETED AT ENROLLMENT
Any Services
	Less than 12th Grade			12th Grade			More than 12th Grade
	Program Group	Control Group	Estimate per Eligible Applicant	Program Group	Control Group	Estimate per Eligible Applicant	Program Group	Control Group	Estimate per Eligible Applicant
Any Key Services***a,b	94.9	79.2	15.8***	97.4	83.5	13.8***	97.3	86.0	11.3***
Any Home Visits Or Center-Based Child Care***	91.2	53.0	38.2***	96.6	60.0	36.6***	97.3	62.5	34.8***
More Than 1 Home Visit or 2 Weeks Center-Based Child Care***	89.0	45.1	43.8***	96.0	54.9	41.1***	96.1	57.8	38.4***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in at Least 1 Followup***	68.4	12.6	55.7***	78.1	11.7	66.4***	85.6	11.5	74.1***
Home Visits or Center Care at Required Intensity in All 3 Followups***	44.3	4.2	40.1***	35.1	2.1	33.0***	42.1	5.8	36.2***
Home Visits
Any Home Visits***	86.2	36.8	49.4***	89.9	34.3	55.6***	91.4	30.3	61.1***
Any Child Development Services During Home Visits***	84.3	32.7	51.6***	91.3	32.7	58.6***	90.7	28.4	62.3***
Weekly Home Visits, 1st Follow-Up Period***	45.7	4.6	41.2***	49.4	4.4	45.0***	60.5	0.8	59.7***
Weekly Home Visits, 2nd Follow-Up Period***	33.9	2.1	31.8***	40.6	3.9	36.7***	44.8	1.6	43.2***
Weekly Home Visits, 3rd Follow-Up Period***	26.7	4.1	22.6***	34.8	2.8	32.0***	29.2	0.6	28.6***
Weekly Home Visits in At Least 1 Followup***	59.0	8.3	50.7***	62.8	6.1	56.7***	66.5	1.4	65.1***
Weekly Home Visits in All 3 Followups***	17.3	0.3	17.0***	25.4	0.8	24.6***	26.1	0.3	25.7***
Child Care
Any Child Care***	84.7	77.5	7.2***	88.6	84.8	3.8	91.2	83.0	8.3**
Any Center-Based Child Care***	47.3	29.1	18.2***	53.4	36.1	17.3***	53.6	42.2	11.4**
Average Hours Per Week of Center-Based Care	5.0	2.1	3.0***	6.1	2.3	3.8***	6.1	4.4	1.6
Concurrent Child Care Arrangements***	50.6	42.2	8.4**	58.2	54.5	3.7