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CHAPTER 9 - CHANGE IN SCHOOLS AND CLASSROOMS
INTRODUCTION
The National Transition Demonstration Project was designed to have an impact on several key elements of schools and how they interact with preschool and community agencies, families, and children. Previous research has established the importance of examining perceptions held by parents, teachers, principals, and students concerning the environmental and organizational features of a school. Such features have been labeled “school climate.” Individual and group perceptions of school climate directly influence attitudes and expectations which, in turn, may influence behavior within the school. Available cross-sectional research has established a predictive relationship between perceptions of school climate and academic achievement. The National Transition Demonstration Study provided longitudinal data to explore the year by year perceptions of the elementary school climate as well as the association between school climate and children’s academic achievement and social behavior. Additionally, information was gathered each year from principals and teachers concerning the existence of specific transition supports available for children and families. This chapter addresses these aspects of the Transition Demonstration effort.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Information about schools was obtained in the spring of each school year via (1) interviews with families, (2) questionnaires completed by principals and teachers, and (3) reviews of children’s school records. In addition, supplemental (“exit”) questionnaires were completed by teachers and principals in the final year of their participation in the Transition Demonstration Project. These sources of information have provided much of the information available to describe the baseline status of the schools and the changes that occurred over time. Specific instruments included:
- School Climate Survey (Kelley, et al, 1986), administered in
the spring of each school year (1993 through 1997), with families, teachers,
and principals serving as informants. This instrument was created to measure
perceptions of how the community feels about the school. Respondents are
asked to rate how much ‘most people’ would agree with given
statements about the school environment. Examples are:
- The School Survey of Early Childhood Programs (RMC Research
Corporation, 1989), developed to seek information from teachers and principals
about the availability of special transition supports in school programs
serving kindergarten or pre-kindergarten children. Part A seeks information
about the school and community context, such as the total enrollment and
the number of students eligible for and participating in Chapter 1 or
reduced-price meal programs. Part B provides information about characteristics
of all kindergarten and first grade programs in the school, including
staff development programs, use of standardized testing, and opportunities
available for parent participation in school activities and governance.
Part C explores the continuity of children’s experiences as they
enter public school kindergarten, focusing on the sharing of information
about individual children between teachers and the coordination of curriculum.
Principals completed all parts of the survey; teachers completed Part
C only.
- The Assessment Profile for Early Childhood Classrooms, Research Version (Abbott-Shim & Sibley, 1991), designed to assess elements of developmentally appropriate practices in preschool and primary grade classrooms via a checklist of observed characteristics and interactions. Direct observation of each classroom for a period of at least one hour, in addition to a short interview with the teacher, provides information about: the Learning Environment (the availability, variety, and appropriateness of learning materials and space); Scheduling (evidence of a schedule that balances a variety of instructional activities); Interacting (the quality of teacher-child interactions and the nature of classroom management strategies); Curriculum (the type and nature of instructional delivery); and Individualizing (the nature and use of assessment).
“Teachers treat each student as an individual.”
“The administrators in this school talk often with teachers and parents.”
“Parents and members of the community attend school meetings and
other activities.”
The shortened survey yields 9 subscales: Teacher-Student Relationships,
Security and Maintenance, Administration, Student Academic Orientation,
Student Behavioral Values, Student-Peer Relationships, Instructional Management,
and Student Activities.
SCHOOL CLIMATE
The perceptions of school climate were analyzed separately for the various respondents --families, principals, and teachers.
Family perceptions. Overall, families were highly positive about their schools, even in the first years of their participation.
aOn a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being “strongly disagree” and 5 being “strongly agree” (with positively-worded statements), families endorsed positive statements about their schools in all areas questioned (see Table 21). They were least positive, however, about statements regarding Student Behavioral Values (perceptions about the level of appropriate student behaviors in the school and classroom), with scores in the neutral range (neither agreeing or disagreeing with the statements). Of all the domains, Student Behavioral Values also displayed the widest variation among the respondents. Family members’ perceptions of schools did not change appreciably over time in either demonstration or comparison schools -- that is, they remained positive over the first four years of elementary school. In kindergarten, ratings of school climate were comparable in the demonstration and comparison schools.
Teacher perceptions. Teachers reported a similar pattern of positive perceptions (see Table 22).b Like families, they were generally positive about most aspects of the school environment, regardless of whether the school was a demonstration or comparison school. They rated Teacher-Student Relationships (teacher attitudes and behaviors toward students) as more positive than did parents, and were more neutral than were parents concerning Instructional Management (the extent to which teacher time can be focused on instruction). Teachers were most uniform in their high appraisal of Teacher-Student Relationships and differed the most in their ratings of Instructional Management. Teachers’ perceptions of school climate, like those of families, did not change significantly over the course of the study. It is important to remember, however, that different groups of teachers provided information each year -- that is, kindergarten teachers were the only ones who provided the first year perceptions, while predominantly third grade teachers provided the final year perceptions.
| Families | Teachers | Principals | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| D | C | D | C | D | C | |
| Teacher-Student Relationships | ||||||
| First year | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.4 |
| Final year | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.3 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 4.4 |
| Security & Maintenance | ||||||
| First year | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.4 | 4.4 |
| Final year | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.4 | 4.4 |
| Administration | ||||||
| First year | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.6 | 4.6 |
| Final year | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 4.7 |
| Student Academic Orientation | ||||||
| First year | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.3 | 42 |
| Final year | 4.1 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.2 | 4.2 |
| Student Behavioral Values | ||||||
| First year | 2.8 | 2.8 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.5 | 3.5 |
| Final year | 2.8 | 3.0 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.8 | 3.6 |
| Student-Peer Relationships | ||||||
| First year | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.1 | 4.0 |
| Final year | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 4.2 | 4.1 |
| Instructional Management | ||||||
| First year | 3.9 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.6 | 3.6 |
| Final year | 3.9 | 4.0 | 3.1 | 3.3 | 3.7 | 3.7 |
| Student Activities | ||||||
| First year | 4.1 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.2 | 4.2 |
| Final year | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.2 | 4.2 |
Principal perceptions. Principals’ perceptions of school climate were the most positive of the three informant groups.c Principals provided the highest average ratings for all domains, with the exception of a higher rating by parents in the area of Instructional Management. Like teachers and parents, principals were less positive when rating Student Behavioral Values. They were also less favorable about Instructional Management than about some other areas. Principals were the most positive about the school’s performance in the area of Administration (the extent to which the administrators set appropriate standards, serve as appropriate role models, and assure appropriate communication), rating this area the highest of all and significantly higher than did families or teachers. Again, principals’ perceptions did not differ significantly over time or by treatment group.
TRANSITION PRACTICES
Principals and teachers provided information concerning transition practices
in operation throughout program implementation. Respondents were asked to
estimate the percentage of students in their school who received particular
types of supports. Principals from demonstration schools reported a slightly
more positive set of transition practices than did those from comparison
schools, although these were not statistically significant. Specifically,
more demonstration principals estimated that the majority of students in
their schools had shared information when they entered kindergarten, and
that they had help with transition or adjustment. Nonetheless, even in demonstration
schools -- where there had been 5 years of program implementation -- theses
types of supports were available in less than one-third of the schools.
Teachers indicated how often communication of information about students
occurred and how often curricula were coordinated across the elementary
school grades.d
A total of 866 teachers (431 demonstration, 435 comparison) provided data (see Table 23). Demonstration teachers reported somewhat greater communication with former teachers concerning both individual children and the curriculum, but these differences were not statistically significant. For both demonstration and comparison groups, more than 40 percent of the teachers reported that curriculum was coordinated across grade levels -- indicating active efforts within schools to provide continuity in educational experiences for young students.
These findings indicate a trend in the expected direction. That is, in demonstration schools, principals and teachers reported somewhat higher levels of communication and coordination with preschool programs, as well as greater provision of transition supports, although not statistically significant.
| Percentage of students for which service is provided | ||
|---|---|---|
| 0-25% (Very few students receive service) |
75-100% (Majority of students receive service) |
|
| Joint workshops occur with preschool programs | ||
| Demonstration principals | 46.60% | 11.00% |
| Comparison principals | 59.50% | 12.10% |
| Information shared about children entering kindergarten | ||
| Demonstration principals | 32.00% | 29.20% |
| Comparison principals | 33.50% | 20.80% |
| Help with transition is provided for children and families | ||
| Demonstration principals | 23.10% | 33.30% |
| Comparison principals | 24.30% | 29.50% |
| Adjustment help is provided for students | ||
| Demonstration principals | 37.40% | 26.50% |
| Comparison principals | 41.00% | 19.70% |
| Communication with previous teacher about children | ||
| Demonstration teachers | 21.10% | 39.70% |
| Comparison teachers | 24.80% | 32.90% |
| Communication with previous teacher about curriculum | ||
| Demonstration teachers | 26.80% | 33.30% |
| Comparison teachers | 31.10% | 27.90% |
| Coordination of curriculum | ||
| Demonstration teachers | 22.30% | 41.10% |
| Comparison teachers | 24.80% | 41.50% |
CHANGE IN CLASSROOMS
The classroom environment and teaching practices are considered potentially important influences on children’s academic progress and social adjustment. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has proposed guidelines for optimal classroom planning and functioning for young children from birth through age eight (c.f., Bredekamp, 1987, 1998). These guidelines, known as “developmentally appropriate practices” (DAP) have been designed to facilitate developmental responsivity and contextual sensitivity within classrooms. Unfortunately, there is an absence of rigorous studies that document the levels of implementation of DAP across kindergarten through third grade for a large, representative sample of classrooms or that evaluate the relative benefits (or potential limitations) of DAP as recommended by NAEYC.
Developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) in the classrooms
Scores for the five scales of the Assessment Profile (originally developed to measure DAP in preschool and kindergarten settings) were available annually for both the demonstration and comparison classrooms (see Figure 9.1). An analysis of these data (using multivariate analysis of variance) indicates that scores for demonstration classrooms were significantly higher than for comparison classrooms for each of the five subscales.e
The largest difference between types of classrooms was found in
their Learning Environment (mean difference = 0.9; p < 0.001). This
suggests that demonstration classrooms provided greater accessibility
to a range of curriculum materials and had more clearly defined working/learning
areas than did comparison classrooms. In practical terms, however, the
small magnitude of the difference (less than 1 point) is not sufficient
to be considered meaningful.
Across grades, the pattern of scores varied by subscale. For example, scores
for the Learning Environment scale decreased for every grade, reflecting
decreased availability of certain types of learning materials and reduced
use of partitioned spaces by third grade. Scores for Scheduling (the extent
to which scheduling of activities and instructional planning is evident
and reflects a variety of activities) showed a significant drop between
kindergarten to first grade, but then increased for second and third grades.
The Curriculum scale measures the extent to which teachers use a variety
of techniques to facilitate learning of different skills and to support
individual learners. Scores on this subscale declined between kindergarten
and first grade and subsequently increased between first and third grades.
With the exception of the Individualizing scale (which showed a reversal
between comparison and demonstration classrooms in the first and second
grade), the pattern of change across grades was similar for the demonstration
and comparison groups.
|
Overall, 17 of 31 sites had significant differences between demonstration
and comparison classrooms, but they were divided as to whether they
favored the Demonstration or Comparison classrooms.
SUMMARY FINDINGS
These analyses suggest that classroom practices represent a complex and dynamic construct within and across the sites. Results indicate that classrooms in demonstration schools were observed to have slightly better arrangement and availability of classroom materials and environments, as well as somewhat better evidence of scheduling, planning, and variety of classroom activities than were classrooms in the comparison schools. Whether the observed levels of implementing these aspects of classroom practices are “ideal” or “optimal” is unknown, largely because there are no quantitative, objective standards or national norms or studies indicating that these classroom practices produce significant differences in children’s learning.aWhile there was some variability in the quantity of usable data across domains, family responses to the School Climate Survey were available from 5,900 parents at kindergarten, 5,300 parents at first and second grades, and 2,700 parents at third grade. The large drop in numbers for third grade was due to this instrument being voluntarily administered by the sites that year, while it was required in the earlier years. A slightly greater percentage of the respondents were from the demonstration group at each grade for each domain. The marked decline in the number of respondents during third grade is attributed to the School Climate Survey being made optional for local sites during third grade. Results reported in this section are based on repeated measures analysis of variance applied to cases with complete longitudinal data (four years) available within a given domain. Sample sizes for these analyses ranged from 1,605 family respondents (806 demonstration, 799 comparison) for the Security and Maintenance domain to 1,026 (527 demonstration, 499 comparison) respondents for the Administration domain. Supplemental analyses were also conducted on those cases with complete longitudinal data available for all eight domains. The resulting data set included 559 respondents (293 demonstration, 266 comparison). Means and inferential conclusions based on this truncated data set are similar to results of the more inclusive data set. Complete analyses are available in Technical Report # 4. (back)
bWhile there was some variability regarding sample sizes within the domain due to fluctuation in the amount of usable data, analyses reported in this section are based on repeated measures analysis of variance applied to responses from approximately 650 kindergarten teachers in 1993, approximately 1,400 kindergarten or first grade teachers in 1994, approximately 1,600 first or second grade teachers in 1995, approximately 1,670 second or third grade teachers in 1996, and approximately 850 third grade teachers in 1997. These numbers were distributed evenly between demonstration and comparison classrooms. (back)
cData were collected from approximately 450 principals each year. While there was some variability regarding the sample sizes within domain due to fluctuations in the amount of usable data, analyses reported in this section are based on repeated measures analysis of variance applied to responses from 263 principals from whom longitudinal data was available from 1993 to 1997 and who remained within the same school across this time period. Principals were approximately evenly distributed between demonstration and comparison assignments. (back)
dInformation for these analyses was available form a total of 866 teachers (431 demonstration, 435 comparison). These teachers were primarily third grade teachers who responded in their final year of program participation. Although both teachers and principals responded to these questions, only the responses from teachers were analyzed, since it was believed that teachers would be more familiar with the nature and extent of interactive communications concerning children and curriculum. Chi-square analyses were used to assess the association of the school’s treatment condition with the categorical response variables. (back)
eAssessment Profiles were completed on 5,329 classrooms (2,707 demonstration, 2,622 comparison). Data were collected in 1,023 kindergarten, 1,436 first grade, 1,548 second grade, and 1,322 third grade classrooms. A slightly greater percentage of data was collected from demonstration classrooms in kindergarten, second, and third grades. Analyses reported in this section are based on a factorial multivariate analysis of variance with grade and comparison group as the between-subjects factors. Greater detail concerning the analyses is provided in Technical Report #4. (back)
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