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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) is well known for seeking to reduce welfare dependency by requiring recipients to work toward self-sufficiency and by imposing time limits and sanctions for noncompliance. Less well known are the legislation’s explicit provisions to promote the formation and maintenance of two-parent families, to reduce out-of-wedlock births, and to promote healthy marriage as a way to improve the economic self-sufficiency of low-income families. In fact, three of the four goals of PRWORA involve family formation. These goals reflect a large body of evidence that children of nonmarital unions and in single-parent households do not fare as well as children who live in married, two-parent households.
The Administration for Children and Families (ACF) of the Department of Health and Human Services contracted with Mathematica Policy Research (MPR) to conduct the Strengthening Families With Children Born Out of Wedlock study (referred to in this report as the Strengthening Families study). The study’s major objective is to develop a conceptual framework for interventions that would address the needs and circumstances of unmarried parents and provide relationship skills instruction and knowledge for those who would choose to form and sustain healthy marriages. Building on research indicating that the period around the time of a child’s birth may represent a critical moment for strengthening couple bonds, this conceptual framework will focus on developing designs for intervening with unwed parents just before or soon after the birth of a child. These parents, together with their child, are sometimes called “fragile families.”
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This report presents the conceptual framework. This introductory chapter reviews the research and policy context for the Strengthening Families study, describes the study activities on which the conceptual framework is based, and presents an overview of the conceptual framework. Chapter II summarizes what is known about the antecedents of family formation and what the research suggests about opportunities for intervention. Chapters III, IV, and V focus on three general approaches to intervention—programs to improve couple relationships, services to improve marriageability, and policy options to remove disincentives to marriage, respectively. Chapter VI discusses program development options and implementation issues, and Chapter VII discusses evaluation design considerations.
A. RESEARCH AND POLICY BACKGROUND
The past several decades have ushered in dramatic changes in family formation. Although the vast majority of Americans embrace marriage as an ideal (Thornton and Young-DeMarco 2001), many do not marry, others are increasingly postponing marriage, and a high proportion of married couples divorce. These changes in the marital status of Americans have had profound effects on the living arrangements and well-being of children and families. Still, most unwed parents are both romantically involved and hopeful about the future of their relationship at the time of their child’s birth (Waller 2000).
1. Unwed-Parent Families and Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing
One-third of all births in the United States are to unmarried women, up from less than 5 percent in 1940 and 7 percent in the mid-1960s (Ventura and Bachrach 2000). While most births to teenagers are out of wedlock, the bulk of nonmarital births are to young adult women over age 18. Nonmarital birth rates also vary significantly by race and ethnicity. In 1998, the number of births per 1,000 unmarried women was 90 for Hispanics, 73 for blacks, and 38 for whites.
The increasing rate of nonmarital childbearing has been accompanied by a significant rise in the rate of cohabitation, especially in the past decade (Bumpass and Lu 2000). Cohabitation increases the chances that a nonmarital birth will occur, and recent data show that nearly half of all unmarried couples are living together when their children are born (McLanahan et al. 2001). Cohabiting unions are less stable than marriage, and the children of these unions often are ultimately raised by a single mother (Smock 2000; Seltzer 2000; and Graefe and Lichter 1999).
The consequences of the decline in marriage and the increase in out-of-wedlock childbearing are not only widespread but also serious for the well-being of children, their parents, their communities, and society as a whole. Studies show children living in single-parent families generally are at greater risk for poor developmental outcomes, less stable family structure, and poverty or near-poverty than are children raised by their married parents (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994). Even when such important family characteristics as parents’ income, race, and socioeconomic status are accounted for, children raised in single-parent families are more likely to have adverse health, behavioral, and academic outcomes (Duncan and Brooks-Gunn 1997). They are also more likely to experience multiple living arrangements and to receive less supervision, care, and contact from both parents (McLanahan 1997).
In contrast, research shows that children who grow up with married, biological parents have better outcomes than children raised in a different family structure. On average, the former are more likely to be healthy, to complete high school, and to become economically self-sufficient adults; and in turn, they are less likely to be involved in drug and alcohol abuse or juvenile delinquency, or to become teen parents (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994).
2. Couple Relationships in Unwed-Parent Families
Some of the most informative data on family formation and couple relationships among unwed parents are emerging from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a large-scale data collection effort underway in 20 large urban areas. Unmarried parents are interviewed and followed over time. New mothers are interviewed in the hospital within 48 hours of giving birth, and fathers are interviewed at the hospital or elsewhere as soon as possible after the birth. Based on data on low-income unmarried parents from the Fragile Families study, the following research findings on low-income unmarried parents are especially interesting:
- Most Low-Income Unmarried Parents Are Romantically Involved
and Have High Hopes for Their Relationships at the Time of Birth.
Among low-income unmarried parents (those whose children’s births
are covered by Medicaid), the vast majority (82 percent) are romantically
involved, about half are living together, and more than half of the mothers
think their chances of marrying the fathers are “pretty good”
or “almost certain” at the time of the birth. Most of the
biological fathers are highly involved with and supportive of the mothers
during pregnancy (McLanahan et al. 2001; Carlson 2002).
- Unmarried Parents View Marriage as Beneficial for Children.
More than 60 percent of low-income unmarried mothers agree that “it
is better for children if their parents are married.” Even unmarried
parents who are not romantically involved and those not cohabiting agree
that marriage is better for children (Carlson 2002).
- Despite Initial Expectations and Hopes, Most Unwed Parents
Remain Unmarried One Year After Birth. The 12-month follow-up
survey data show that many couples’ expectations about getting married
do not materialize. In the Medicaid subgroup, fewer than 15 percent of
the baseline cohabiters had married within 12 months. About 60 percent
of those cohabiting at the time of birth were still cohabiting a year
later. Couples who were “visiting”—romantically involved
but not living together—were most likely to change the status of
their relationship; that is, while almost one-third had moved in together,
more than one-quarter were no longer romantically involved but remained
“friends” (Carlson 2002).
- Unmarried Parents Have Lower Capabilities for Self-Sufficiency and Relationships. Despite a positive attitude toward marriage, good relationship quality, and high father involvement at the time of a birth, unmarried parents are limited in their ability to provide for a family or to sustain positive family relationships. As documented in the Fragile Families study, unmarried parents are more likely than married ones to have limited education, weak job experience, complicated family relationships, and a distrust of the opposite sex (McLanahan et al. 2001).
3. Program and Polcy Responses
A variety of programs and policies have emerged in response to the problems associated with out-of-wedlock births and single-parent families. Some promote sexual abstinence outside of marriage. Others focus on reducing teen and nonmarital pregnancy. Still others promote responsible fatherhood and, more recently, focus on encouraging healthy and strong marriages.
Programs That Promote Abstinence Until Marriage. Some policy and program responses to the problem of out-of-wedlock births have focused on educating teens and adults on the value of sexual abstinence until marriage. Many states have implemented such programs using Section 510 funding of Title V of the Social Security Act, and these efforts are being evaluated (Devaney et al. 2002).
Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs. This diverse set of programs intended to reduce unwanted teen pregnancies has been implemented in schools and communities across the nation. While some of these programs promote a strong abstinence-until-marriage message, others provide sex education and information on family planning. Numerous national pregnancy prevention efforts have been launched as well. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy—a private, nonpartisan coalition formed in 1997—enlists people in academia, medicine, social science, charitable foundations, the clergy, and the media to take a clear stand against out-of-wedlock teenage pregnancy.
Responsible Fatherhood Programs. Other program responses to the problem of single-parent families and out-of-wedlock births seek to promote responsibility among men who already have fathered children out of wedlock. Enforcing child support, establishing paternity early, and promoting the father’s involvement in the child’s life may act as a deterrent to additional nonmarital births. Responsible fatherhood programs are also intended to promote the well-being of children by ensuring that they have the financial and emotional support of both parents even if the family does not live together. To build a better understanding of the contribution of fathers and to promote responsible fatherhood, many public and private initiatives, programs, and research efforts have emerged nationwide (for example, the National Fatherhood Initiative, National Center on Fathers and Families, Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, Map and Track: State Initiatives to Promote Responsible Fatherhood). Other fatherhood programs, such as Partners for Fragile Families, take a “team parenting” approach, encouraging mothers and fathers to work together on behalf of their children whether they live together or not. Finally, programs designed to promote the early development of children in low-income families, such as Early Head Start, have begun to focus more formally on encouraging father involvement.
Public Policies and Family Formation. An additional factor is the extent to which public policies might discourage marriage by reducing the combined income that cohabiting couples would receive if they marry. Disincentives to marriage exist in many tax and transfer programs that affect the poor, including TANF, Medicaid, food stamps, child care and housing subsidies, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) and others (Steuerle 2001; Horn and Sawhill 2001). While many observers agree that such disincentives should be reduced (preferably in a comprehensive and systematic way), there is little consensus about how, or even if, explicit financial incentives for marriage should be implemented. This question is being debated in a number of forums across the country.
Some proposals suggest that cash bonuses should be used to encourage marriage (Rector 2000a). Other policies that might influence the family formation decisions of unwed parents relate to requirements associated with child support enforcement, paternity establishment, and welfare-to-work rules (McLanahan et al. 2000; Beeson and Primus 2001; Mincy and Dupree 2000; Turetsky 1999; Sorensen and Zibman 2000).
Programs That Encourage Healthy Marriage. Many “marriage education” programs have emerged in recent years to prepare couples for marriage or to strengthen existing marriages and prevent divorce (Sollee 2000). Developed primarily in response to the climbing divorce rates, marriage programs may focus on building relationship skills, address some of the stresses associated with the transition to parenthood, or offer marriage enrichment activities—often through mentors and clergy. These programs have access to many resources and curricula, some of which are research-based and have been evaluated. The vast majority of marriage interventions, however, have not been designed for or used with low-income unmarried couples who are parents.
Many states have sponsored initiatives to strengthen and promote healthy, sustainable marriages. Several states have enacted covenant marriage legislation, which permits couples to choose to be legally bound by more restrictive conditions for divorce. Some governors have established marriage commissions to develop policies that support marriage and families. A number of states have enacted laws to mandate or encourage either marriage education for high school students or brief premarital counseling for engaged couples. Finally, a few states—Oklahoma, in particular—are designing or implementing programs that provide relationship skills education specifically for low-income families.
B. STRENGTHENING FAMILIES STUDY
The goal of the Strengthening Families study is to develop a conceptual framework for interventions that would address the needs and circumstances of unmarried parents and provide relationship skills instruction and knowledge for those who would choose to form and sustain healthy marriages. The study builds on what is known about family formation in the low-income population from the disparate sources of information discussed above: (1) trends in nonmarital childbearing and the adverse consequences for children, (2) Fragile Families data showing that new unwed parents initially have high hopes and expectations for marriage, and (3) an evolving and diverse set of program and policy responses to encourage healthy and stable marriages among low-income unmarried parents. The overall study plan is to develop program models that capitalize on the important strengths of unwed parents with newborns, nurturing the paternal instinct, the mother’s desire to keep a father involved in the children’s upbringing, and the couple’s hopes for marriage. Strengthening these early bonds by helping families face the challenges ahead may lead to healthy and stable marriage and better outcomes for parents and children.
Helping couples achieve a healthy marriage is not the same as expecting they will have perfect marriages free of problems. Marriage experts generally acknowledge the inevitability of some degree of conflict in marriages, but distinguish healthy marriages as ones in which partners committed to each other share a common vision of their future, practice effective communication, and manage conflicts in a way that prevents the build-up of chronic hostility (Gottman and Silver 1999). The kinds of interventions described in this conceptual framework thus begin with a realistic and hopeful, rather than idealized, view of marriage.
To develop the conceptual framework presented in this report, the Strengthening Families study involved the following activities:
- Expert Panel. An expert panel comprising
practitioners, policymakers, and researchers provided input with regard
to areas relevant for strengthening family relationships.
- Review of the Literature. This review focused
on the characteristics and needs of families with children born out of
wedlock and on the theoretical constructs and empirical evidence related
to strengthening couple relationships.
- Extensive Fieldwork. Telephone interviews
with a broad range of programs and in-depth field research on selected
programs provided information on programs that serve low-income families
in general and on those that focus on relationship skills and the transition
to parenthood.
- Technical Assistance. Working with nascent state programs designed to encourage family formation and healthy marriage, the study team was able to discern the range of issues that state officials are facing in designing and implementing these programs.
1. Expert Panel
The expert panel for the Strengthening Families study was designed to complement and extend the expertise of the project team. The panel includes policymakers and researchers known for their understanding of the following: marriage as an important social institution, marriage in different racial and ethnic subgroups, marriage policy, and the design and operation of programs intended to strengthen couple relationships. The panel also includes individuals with expertise in child development and a substantive understanding of programs and services available to low-income families. Also included are practitioners who work directly with low-income families and therefore have first-hand experience with their needs and strengths. Appendix A lists the expert panel members.
The expert panel met twice with the study team and federal policymakers. The purpose of the first meeting was to obtain their guidance on how to explore or otherwise handle the following: background characteristics of low-income unmarried parents and their families, research findings and lessons learned from selected programs designed to strengthen marriage and programs that serve the target population of low-income unmarried parents, and issues to be considered in designing an intervention to promote healthy and stable marriage. The second meeting focused on an early draft of the conceptual framework. Feedback and guidance from panel members, as well as from additional experts and researchers, were incorporated into the final conceptual framework. Throughout the entire study period, the project team consulted with various members of the panel for their insight into specific issues or programs.
2. Literature Review
The literature review was intended to lay the groundwork for the conceptual framework and the intervention design. The review provided background data on unmarried parents and their families; research on the determinants of and barriers to developing and maintaining strong family relationships; information on the range of programs intended to strengthen marriage and those serving low-income unmarried-parent families; and evaluation design considerations. The major topics covered in the literature review were (1) trends in marriage, cohabitation, out-of-wedlock childbearing, and the effects on children; (2) descriptive information, including demographics, on unmarried parents and their children; (3) theories and empirical evidence on the reasons for the decline in marriage and the increase in out-of-wedlock childbearing; (4) theories and empirical evidence on approaches to strengthening couple relationships and promoting healthy marriage; and (5) information on the range of programs to support low-income families and their effectiveness.
3. Fieldwork
In-depth telephone interviews and site visits with an array of family intervention programs were major components of the Strengthening Families study. The primary purpose of these activities was to learn about the types of programs and services that could inform the development of the conceptual framework.
The first step in the fieldwork was to identify a broad range of programs as interview candidates. Interventions for low-income families exist in a variety of settings and involve an array of approaches and providers. For example, home visiting programs, maternal and child health services, early paternity establishment programs, child development programs, and responsible fatherhood initiatives operate across the country. Although it is rare that the primary goal of these programs is to promote healthy marriage and strengthen couples, they could either inform the design of a new intervention or be modified to include the strengthening of couple relationships as a more prominent goal. These programs and others like them present an opportunity to learn not only about what types of approaches appear to work but also about the challenges involved in implementing programs serving low-income unmarried parent families.
An issue unique to such programs may be how to engage participants and make services accessible to unwed parents who do not necessarily live together. Many programs target the mother (e.g., Healthy Start), the father (e.g., Parent’s Fair Share), or the child (e.g., an early childhood development program), but not the family as a whole. One promising service delivery method, especially for cohabiting couples, is home visiting, which has been effective in reaching young low-income mothers (Olds et al. 1999).
A list of potential programs was identified for fieldwork on the basis of the literature review and input from the expert panel and project consultants, experts in the field, federal staff, and national organizations. Project staff conducted in-depth telephone interviews with 21 programs, asking detailed questions about the following: program background and goals, population served, the point in a couple’s life at which the program intervenes, services provided, curriculum, outreach efforts, how services are delivered (e.g., through classes or home visits), program scale, and other aspects of program implementation.
Table B.1 in Appendix B summarizes key information derived from these interviews. All programs had one or more of the following elements: a focus on strengthening couple relationships, a target population of unmarried low-income mothers or fathers, and an interesting and replicable service delivery or outreach approach. The programs could be grouped generally into one or more of the following categories: couple relationship, parenting, fatherhood, family support, health-based, employment-based, and community marriage initiatives.
Based on the in-depth telephone interviews, a set of programs was selected for site visits. The visits added more detail to what was learned from the interviews, including information on how important program elements are implemented and how they might apply to interventions designed to strengthen relationships among low-income unmarried parents. Project staff made site visits to the following five programs, which are also summarized in Appendix C:
- Baby Makes Three (Seattle). This program was
developed by Dr. John Gottman, a well-known expert on marriage and couple
relationships. Building on research indicating that marital conflict often
increases when a baby arrives, the program provides an intensive weekend
workshop focused on couple relationship skills followed by 12 support
group meetings over the next six months. The goals of the workshop and
support groups are to (1) strengthen couple relationships and marriages
and to prepare couples for the stresses often experienced with the birth
of a baby, (2) promote father (and mother) involvement in the family,
and (3) teach expectant and new parents basic skills in infant and child
development and parenting. The workshop is the skills-based component,
and the support groups are the therapeutic component. The program, based
in a hospital, is now being evaluated in a three-year longitudinal study.
The population served is primarily white, middle-class, and married.
- Bienvenidos Family Services (East Los Angeles).
This program takes a comprehensive approach to serving low-income, mostly
Hispanic families, potentially offering lessons for the design of interventions
for similar families who face multiple challenges to a stable family life.
It focuses on parenting skills, father involvement, and a wide range of
support services such as domestic violence screening and counseling, referrals
to employment and financial management services, substance abuse treatment,
and health education. The program uses a variety of service delivery methods,
including home visits, classes, and support groups.
- Center for Fathers, Families, and Workforce Development
(Baltimore). CFWD has two primary components: Men’s
Services, which predominantly serves low-income black fathers, and workforce
development efforts made possible through STRIVE, an intensive employment
program for men and women. The goal of Men’s Services is to help
men become more active in their children’s lives; it takes a comprehensive
approach that includes case management, life skills development, and parenting
education. STRIVE is an intensive job readiness workshop that combines
critical thinking, self-examination, relationship building, affirmation,
practical skill development, and two years of post-graduation monitoring
and assistance in job retention and advancement.
- Children First (Tulsa). Children First is
a nurse home visitation program for mothers who have little financial
or social support and are expecting to deliver and parent their first
child. Public health nurses conduct home visits during pregnancy and in
the first two years of the child’s life. The nurses use well-developed
program protocols during these years, following a schedule of weekly,
biweekly, and, eventually, monthly visits. They focus on the personal
health of the mothers and children, the maternal role, personal sources
of support, and accessing community resources.
- Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program. The Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP®) teaches couples skills and strategies for effective communication, problem-solving, and conflict management, typically over a six-week period. The idea is to prevent dissatisfaction, distress, and ultimately, divorce. PREP can be deployed in a variety of settings by a diverse group of individuals, including educators, counselors, clergy, mental health professionals, or lay leaders. Typical clients include married couples and those planning to marry. The program’s five main objectives are (1) to develop and guide the practice of constructive communication and conflict resolution skills, (2) to clarify and modify relationship beliefs and expectations, (3) to promote and sustain fun, friendship, and spiritual connection in intimate relationships, (4) to develop an agreed-upon set of ground rules for handling disagreements and conflict, and (5) to develop skills to enhance and maintain commitment.
4. Technical Assistance
State and local governments are increasingly developing and implementing policies, programs, and services to address or promote healthy marriage through their welfare and child support enforcement systems. An important component of the Strengthening Families study is to provide technical assistance to these agencies in designing programs and implementing systems to track outcomes related to these initiatives. Although technical assistance varies, it typically includes compiling and distributing relationship skills and marriage curricula, guidance in program design, advice on data collection needs, analyzing state survey data, conducting focus groups, and participating in research advisory panels. The technical assistance activities have also been valuable to the study team, building its understanding of how the goal of promoting healthy marriage is being interpreted and discussed by state and local government agencies and community-based organizations.
C. OVERVIEW OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The four study tasks described above—expert panel, literature review, in-depth fieldwork, and technical assistance—form the basis for the conceptual framework explained in the following chapters. Figure I.1 summarizes the Strengthening Families conceptual framework. This framework highlights the important linkages between family background (column 1), program interventions designed to strengthen families with children born out of wedlock (column 2), intermediate changes in family and parent relationships resulting from these interventions (column 3), and longer-term behaviors and related outcomes potentially affected by the interventions (column 4).
Antecedents of Family Formation and Child Well-Being (Column 1). The first component of the conceptual framework—which is the focus of Chapter II of this report—consists of the key antecedents of the longer-term outcomes of family formation and child well-being. These antecedents were identified through a review of the literature on the background characteristics and circumstances of families with children born out of wedlock. They may include, for example, demographic characteristics, the type and quality of the parental relationship, and multiple partner fertility. They also include parents’ skills, attitudes, and expectations with respect to marriage and relationships as well their employability, physical and mental health, and parenting behavior. The antecedents of family formation also involve aspects of the broader environment, including the unemployment rate, cultural attitudes, and public policies such as the rules and benefits associated with public assistance, child support enforcement, and taxes.
These background factors will drive the design of program and policy interventions to strengthen families. They may also have important direct effects on long-term outcomes, or they may operate indirectly by influencing either program participation or intermediate outcomes, as shown in columns 2 and 3 of Figure I.1. In addition, background factors may be used to target families for certain program services and influence the likelihood that families will participate in the program.
Figure I.1. Conceptual Framework: Strengthening Families
![[Figure I.1. Conceptual Framework: Strengthening Families]](images/framework_fig1.gif)
Program Interventions (Column 2). Program interventions to strengthen families with children born out of wedlock are the cornerstone of this conceptual framework. As discussed in Chapters III through V, the following three types of program interventions are considered: relationship training and marriage education; services to improve marriageability; and policy options to encourage marriage. Marriageability is conventionally defined as a person’s attractiveness as a marriage partner based on the human capital—education and employment history—that contribute to one’s labor market participation and earnings. Chapter VI of this report discusses several key implementation issues: building support for a focus on healthy marriage, cultural sensitivity, outreach and recruitment of program participants, and assessing couples and families. That chapter also covers important service delivery features, including the context and setting, the mode of delivery, the duration and intensity of program services, and program staffing.
Outcomes of Program Interventions (Columns 3 and 4). Participation in programs to strengthen families is expected to influence the longer-term outcomes of child and parent well-being through effects on intermediate outcomes (column 3) or directly (column 4). As discussed in Chapter VII, intermediate outcomes include healthy marriage, stronger relationships between parents, a more stable family structure, increased father involvement and cooperation in childrearing, better parenting skills and parent-child relationships, and improved family functioning. Long-term outcomes involve child and parent well-being, reduced out-of-wedlock childbearing, and greater family self-sufficiency. Building on the conceptual framework, Chapter VII presents an evaluation strategy for estimating the effects of a broad range of program and policy interventions on outcomes. The recommended evaluation strategy includes a comprehensive implementation analysis and an impact analysis. Together, these two components would provide information on how programs are implemented; descriptive information on the programs’ target population, participants, and nonparticipants; and an estimate of the impacts of program and policy interventions on family formation and child well-being.
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