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Executive Summary
A key element of the Administration for Children and Families’ (ACF’s) strategy for implementing the Healthy Marriage Initiative (HMI) has been to identify subpopulations that would benefit from specialized program approaches. This report presents a conceptual framework for programs meant to promote stable and healthy marriages among one important subgroup, stepfamilies. Specifically, our charge from ACF was to focus on low-income married couples where one or both spouses have children by other partners. The conceptual framework is based on a review of the research literature on stepfamilies and on an informal study of marriage education programs currently serving stepfamilies.
Stepfamily couples (i.e., “stepcouples”) have become common as a result of recent rates of divorces, remarriages, and first marriages following out-of-wedlock births. Stepcouples face a variety of unique challenges which put them at higher risk for dissolution than non-stepfamily couples. These challenges arise in part from complex relationships in the family with stepchildren, former partners, and half- and stepsiblings. Problems stemming from these complexities also put children in stepfamilies at greater risk for negative outcomes than children in nuclear families1 (Coleman, Ganong, & Fine, 2003). Existing marriage education programs do not address these unique stresses for stepfamilies in depth.
While not all stepfamilies have low income, risks for stepcouples are magnified in the context of lower economic resources. Couples experiencing economic strain face additional stresses arising from financial difficulties and other personal and environmental challenges accompanying limited resources (e.g., (Conger & Elder, 1994; Conger, Rueter, & Elder, 1999). Therefore, low-income stepcouples are a high-need target population for HMI programs and services.
Overview of the Conceptual Framework
We conducted a thorough review of existing empirical research on stepfamily dynamics, gleaned relevant information from studies of low-income couples, and reviewed a number of current marriage education programs for stepcouples. Our goal was to develop a conceptual framework to guide practitioners’ thinking when targeting this population of married couples.
Figure 1 presents our conceptual framework for marriage education programs for low-income married stepcouples. The framework shows the linkages among conditions affecting stepcouples, the program services, and the intermediate and long-term outcomes. Two intervention components have a key role in the model: (1) the marriage education programs and (2) other services. The marriage education component includes topics related to basic skills for marital couples, whether in a stepfamily or not, in addition to a number of topics specific to stepcouples. Other services address individual challenges that can place extra stress on stepcouple relationships.
The underlying assumption in this model is that learning about these topics and developing the related skills will contribute to the formation and/or maintenance of strong relationships within the stepfamily and to adult well-being. These intermediate outcomes will in turn further the development of the long-term outcomes, marital quality and stability and child well-being. An additional assumption is that developing and maintaining high levels of marital quality will buffer the effects of economic hardship and the accompanying stresses among those with lower economic resources. Existing conditions affecting stepcouples include individual, stepfamily, and community characteristics. Figure 1 shows that these conditions both directly affect the intermediate and long-term outcomes and also influence the degree to which the program can support healthy marital relationships. The “other services” (training and treatment) component of the program is targeted at strengthening individual capacities, as shown by broken lines.
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Study of Programs Serving Stepfamilies
The project team conducted a series of informal telephone interviews with staff from 16 current marriage education programs for stepfamilies. The primary purpose of these interviews was to add practitioners’ perspectives on stepcouples’ marriage education needs to the conceptual framework. A second objective was to document practical lessons learned by those who have been providing such programs. It was not the goal of this program study to provide a systematic review of current programs for stepfamilies.
For the program review, we conducted an extensive search for programs whose goal is to support and improve the marriages of low-income stepcouples through direct education.
We identified about 40 programs that provide educational services to stepfamilies. From these programs we selected 16 to interview that included a range of implementation formats, organizational settings, and target populations. Despite our extensive search, we found no programs providing marriage education to low-income stepcouples. The populations served by the programs we identified were predominantly White, middle-class couples.
Program Outreach and Recruitment Issues
Most programs contacted experienced challenges recruiting stepcouples, as is frequently the case for voluntary programs of all sorts. Consistent with studies of barriers to participation in other specialized community education programs (e.g., Coleman & Ganong, 2004), stepcouples may be unaware both that they have special challenges and that many of the issues they face may be addressed through education. In addition, stepcouples also may be reluctant to identify themselves as stepfamilies due to perceived cultural biases against them. Another factor that scholars have noted is that stepfamily couples may be especially attuned to the possibility that bringing up conflictual issues may lead to risk of divorce (Visher & Visher, 1997). Stepcouples may be less likely to voluntarily attend marriage education programs if their family is functioning fairly well. An “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” mentality may be at work. Couples may not want to risk bringing up issues that may lead to conflict, even if these issues need to be discussed (Coleman & Ganong, 2004). It may be necessary to clarify in marketing for programs that classes are intended for both assistance with current issues and maintenance of healthy, happy marriages.
A number of program staff we interviewed also offered helpful suggestions for increasing participation, such as: (1) offering one-session workshops, rather than multi-session series (to accommodate family schedules) and (2) clarifying that these marriage education services include information on successful stepparenting (since many couples realize the strain that challenging stepparent-stepchild relationships put on their marriage and may be looking for strategies to assist in this area).
Program Content
The programs contacted varied in terms of format, setting, staffing, duration, and intensity. There was relatively more consistency in the core topics covered. These topics were highly consistent with the topics identified in the research literature and included in our conceptual framework. All the programs we contacted included these topics:
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The unique characteristics and developmental stages of stepfamilies (e.g., that it can take 3-5 years for stepfamily members to learn to relate comfortably to each other);
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The importance of the stepparent-stepchild relationship for the couple’s marital relationship and effective stepparenting practices; and
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Navigating relationships with former spouses/partners, especially the co-parenting relationship.
Most of the programs for stepcouples we contacted did not include basic skills for strengthening the marital relationship (e.g., communication and conflict management skills). However, the longest multi-session programs did include at least communication skills.
Observations on Stepfamilies
Together our review of research literature on stepfamilies and study of programs yielded a number of observations about stepfamilies and raised questions that future research might address.
Stepfamilies Have Unique Characteristics
From the start, stepfamilies differ from non-stepfamilies in important ways:
- The biological parent-child bond predates the couple’s relationship;
- A spouse may become an “instant parent” at marriage rather than having children join the family over time;
- One of the children’s biological parents most likely lives in a separate household;
- Children may move between two households;
- The vast majority of stepfamily couples will be navigating at least one co-parenting relationship with a former spouse/partner; and
- Members of the family have experienced the loss of a relationship through separation, divorce, or death.
Marriage educators will be most effective in supporting healthy marriages among stepcouples when this unique family context is considered and addressed in program services. We emphasize that the context is likely to be even more complex and challenging among low-income stepcouples because of the higher incidence of multiple-partner fertility, with its multiple co-parenting relationships, extended family relationships, and sibling relationships. For such families, such complexities can create additional stresses even before adding the difficulties that come with limited financial resources. Because of the complexity of relationships present at the onset of stepcouple formation, marriage education services should utilize an inclusive approach to addressing other relationships in the family system.
Awareness of Stepfamilies’ Unique Characteristics and Prevalence Appears Limited
The unique relationship complexities in stepfamilies often are not acknowledged and addressed by stepcouples or marriage education programs. Marriage education programs may not distinguish between stepcouples and nuclear family couples. Few general marriage education programs include program content specific to the stepfamily context.
Scholars suggest that the tendency to relegate stepcouples to a “hidden” population owes to societal norms affirming the nuclear family as “ideal” (Ganong & Coleman, 2004). One finds evidence of these norms in the media, fairy tales, and in forms and procedures used by schools and other institutions. Implicit in this treatment are societal pressures for stepcouples to function and develop in the same way as nuclear family couples.
Stepfamily Couples Need Realistic Expectations about Stepfamily Development
Many stepcouples enter marriage with the expectation that their marriage will be “just like” marriages where no stepchildren or former partners are involved. The most predominant unrealistic standards include beliefs about functional equivalency to first-marriage families, quick adjustment, and instant love (Visher & Visher, 1988). It is important that stepcouples recognize that their unique family characteristics will have implications for their marital functioning. For example, it often takes a substantial length of time for stepfamily relationships and routines to gel. The first several years are especially likely to be turbulent for stepcouples. Expectations about family bonding, emotional closeness, and love among all of the members of the stepfamily equally may be unrealistic. The programs we identified all worked to address these expectations.
Stepfamily Couples Need Skills in Parenting Stepchildren, Co-Parenting, and Negotiating
Respondents in the program study consistently indicated that tensions between stepparents and stepchildren were a key focus of their programs and that many families sought out support and education because of these issues. Several respondents told us that couples with pre-adolescents and adolescents were especially likely to participate in the programs. This self-selection fits with empirical evidence that stepcouples with pre-adolescent and adolescent children report comparatively more adjustment issues and marital difficulties than stepcouples with younger children.
The marital relationship is affected also by the quality of the co-parenting relationship(s) with former spouses/partners. It is important for stepcouples to be able to keep conflict low when co-parenting and protect the boundaries between households that is necessary for healthy marital functioning,
Although negotiation skills are important for all relationships, stepcouples face added challenges in navigating the roles and norms that are not clearly defined in general societal norms. Financial responsibilities also can be more complicated in stepfamilies, and stepcouples must successfully negotiate a shared vision for their financial practices. Although the programs interviewed usually provided information on the topics of stepparenting and negotiating with a former spouse, few programs focused on teaching these specific skills. Because most of the programs we contacted were of short duration, it may be that longer programs could do more to address specific skills.
Suggestions for Marriage Education Programs for Stepfamilies
The program study generated ideas about various ways in which marriage education could be provided to stepfamilies, and especially to low-income stepfamilies.
Stepfamilies in General Marriage Education Programs
One key design question for marriage education programs for stepcouples is whether to develop programs specifically for stepfamilies or to incorporate material on stepfamilies in programs serving both stepfamilies and non-stepfamilies. We are not aware of any research investigating which approach is more effective. Theoretically, both have advantages and disadvantages. Targeted programs can be more fully tailored to stepfamily issues and needs, and participants may benefit from the additional social support and “normalization” from sharing experiences with others in similar circumstances. On the other hand, it may be difficult to identify and recruit participants who are strictly from stepfamilies. Programs for mixed groups are more practical in this regard and can be designed to include material and break-out sessions on stepfamilies. Special effort may need to be made to ensure that recruitment efforts effectively reach stepfamily couples, that program staff identify participants as stepcouples even when they do not self-identify, and that program content provides enough emphasis on the unique circumstances stepfamily couples face.
Classes to Prepare Couples for Marriage
Stepfamily content would also be appropriate to add to marriage preparation classes. Many couples, including stepcouples, are encouraged or required by their religious institutions to attend a marriage preparation class. General marriage preparation classes appear frequently to include participants from a range of socioeconomic groups. Some religious institutions already have created marriage preparation classes specifically for soon-to-be stepfamilies although such programs do not appear to be in widespread use. Participants in marriage preparation programs are likely to include couples who are forming stepfamilies, whether through remarriage or by marrying for the first time but with children from previous relationships. It would be reasonable, therefore, to include general content about the unique characteristics of stepfamilies within these courses to address the needs of this group and to raise awareness of stepfamily issues generally. As was suggested in the context of general marriage education programs, marriage preparation programs could offer additional sessions for those forming stepfamilies to discuss their particular concerns.
State-Mandated Classes for Divorcing Parents
A number of states require divorcing parents to attend classes before they can be granted a divorce,2 with the intent to reduce the potential negative impact of the divorce on the children. The majority of these divorcing parents will eventually remarry and form stepfamilies. Therefore, pre-divorce classes may be an appropriate context in which to include at least some content on stepfamily issues. Particularly in the states where these classes are required by law, a substantial number of low-income and minority couples are likely to attend. Content could focus on general information about stepfamilies and the implications for future marriages. The facilitator could also provide information on marriage education and other relevant services available in the community. An examination of curricula used in these classes reveals that most already devote about 10 to 15% of the time to issues related to re-partnering and stepfamilies (Geasler & Blaisure, 1998). Unfortunately, the content tends to be very narrow, focused mainly on cautioning parents against forming new relationships too quickly and the potential negative impact on children when they face yet another set of changes.
Suggestions for Implementation of Marriage Education Programs for Low-income Stepfamilies
Research scholars and respondents in our program study provided some suggestions relevant to delivering marriage education services to low-income stepfamilies. In order to reduce the stigma that many stepcouples feel about being in a stepfamily, marriage educators might work with community leaders to promote a more positive image of stepfamilies and encourage them to participate in programs. Religious leaders might be especially effective in doing this for members of their congregations. In order to make the experience of marriage education positive for low-income stepfamilies from diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds, it will be important to recognize potential cultural differences in attitudes regarding family privacy and whether or not one should discuss personal matters with outsiders, including marriage educators. In addition, it will be important to have program materials provided in the participants’ preferred language and at literacy levels that are comfortable for members of the group. Another suggestion that marriage educators may want to consider is to include children, especially pre-adolescents and adolescents, in some of the sessions. Such formats may be especially helpful for stepfamilies, because children’s behaviors have such an important influence on the marital relationship in these families (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).
Recommendations for Future Research and Evaluation
Improved information on stepfamilies is seriously needed in fashioning policies and programs. In our report we offer suggestions on several broad areas of needed research, including descriptive studies on stepfamily prevalence (including stepfamilies in low-income and racial- and ethnic-minority groups) and on low-income stepcouples’ attitudes and experiences. We also provide recommendations for evaluation research on marriage education programs for stepcouples, suggesting that implementation and participant studies be conducted first. A test of the full conceptual model for work with stepcouples through Healthy Marriage Initiative services, utilizing an experimental longitudinal design, would move the practice field toward an empirically-validated model for best practices with this target population.
Summary
Existing evidence suggests that many married couples in the U.S. are managing stepfamily relationships. Empirical studies of stepfamily dynamics highlight the unique factors inherent in stepfamily marriages that impact their quality and stability, most notably the complexity of multiple relationships that exist at the onset of the marriage. Additional research on low-income populations suggests that economic strain carries with it risks for marital health and stability, as well. Therefore, low-income stepcouples represent a target population for the HMI of high and unique needs for marriage education. A conceptual framework for marriage education for stepcouples derived from research and an informal study with community educators targeting stepfamilies suggests the inclusion of eight core content areas: Utilizing basic marital skills; developing understanding of and positive view of stepfamilies; utilizing effective stepparenting practices; navigating relationships with former spouses/partners; negotiating stepfamily roles and rules; utilizing financial management skills; utilizing effective parenting practices; and building other supportive connections inside and outside the family. In addition, the framework suggests the consideration of several elements of program service delivery and of conditions that exist at the individual, family, and community levels and influence service needs. It is expected that the implementation of such a program will result in healthy stepfamily relationships and positive individual well-being (i.e., adult and child), and contribute to the overall quality and stability of stepcouple marriages.
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