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Synthesis of Findings From Three Sites

B. Job Outcomes

The second regression model examines the relationship between employment and earnings and fiscal year cohort, sociodemographic characteristics, country of origin, and service receipt in the first two years. Table VII.2 presents the results from this second regression model.

Gender was strongly correlated with both employment and earnings in Houston and Miami. Compared with women, men were more likely to be employed and earning higher wages. This was also true in Sacramento, from the analysis of survey data. Being married increased the likelihood of employment and earnings in Miami.

Completion of high school and the ability to speak English at entry increased the likelihood of employment in Miami. Both variables were also correlated with increased earnings in both Houston and Miami. In Houston, completion of high school was correlated with an increase in earnings of $1,300, and ability to speak English well was correlated with an increase in earnings of $2,400. In Miami, completion of high school was correlated with an increase in earnings of $1,600, and ability to speak English well was correlated with an increase in earnings of $2,200. Survey data from Sacramento shows a positive correlation between completion of high school and employment. Sacramento regression results also show a positive correlation between ability to speak English well and earnings.

Again, the different refugee countries of origin in each study site make it impossible to compare country of origin across the sites. Regression results suggest that being Haitian was associated with a reduction in earnings of $700 compared with being Cuban. Haitians, however, were more likely to be employed.

Receipt of education services in the first two years had a positive correlation with employment and earnings in Miami; this was not true in Houston, although that result might reflect the low level of participation in education services in Houston. Employment service receipt was positively correlated with employment and earnings in Houston. In Miami, receipt of employment services was correlated with an increase in earnings, but the size of the effect was much smaller than in Houston (an increase of about $700 in Miami compared with $2,400 in Houston). The receipt of ESL services was positively correlated with both employment and earnings in Houston and Miami, and associated with an increase in employment of 5 percent (about $1,100) in Houston and 3 percent ($1,500) in Miami.

Table VII.2: Regression Results: Employment and Earnings

	Employment a				Earnings b
	Houston		Miami		Houston		Miami
Fiscal year cohort c
2001			-0.032	***			498	***
2002			-0.015	**			690	***
2003	-0.015		-0.048	***	-1911		1143	***
2004	-0.107	*			-2393	*
Sociodemographic characteristics
Age at entry	0.009		-0.001		412	**	243	***
Age at entry squared	-0.000		0.000		-7	**	-4	***
Male	0.064	**	0.049	***	3488	***	5808	***
Married	0.044		0.014	***	1370	**	729	***
Completed high school	0.008		0.057	***	1279	*	1618	***
Speaks English at entry	0.046		0.072	***	2385	***	2208	***
Asylee	0.004		0.002		892		426
Country of origin d
Miami
Haiti			0.048	***			-672	**
Colombia			-0.014				683	*
Other, non-Cuban			-0.016				694
Houston
Sudan	-0.039				-418
Cuba	-0.020				168
Vietnam	-0.158	**			-2232	*
Other, non-African	-0.065	*			190
Service receipt in first two years
Education	0.004		0.042	***	452		1322	***
Employment services	0.172	***	0.009		2430	***	719	***
ESL	0.053	**	0.033	***	1122	**	1498	***
Case management/orientation	0.051	*			-313
Driver’s education	0.080	***			1348	**
Constant	0.481	***	0.693	***	-214		808
Observations	1192		35117		1192		35117
R-squared	0.085		0.011		0.099		0.076

Sources: State unemployment insurance wage records
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%
a For Houston, employment in Year 2; for Miami, employment in Year 3
b For Houston, earnings in Year 2; for Miami, earnings in Year 3
c For Houston, excluded category is 2002; for Miami, excluded category is 2000
d For Houston, excluded category is Other Africa; for Miami, excluded category is Cuba

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VIII. Conclusion

This study focused on three communities in the United States serving large numbers of refugees. It found exceptional diversity in the populations served, the processes for delivering services, and the interaction between refugee programs and the state welfare system. Given that the study was limited to these communities, and was focused on two programs (RSS and TAG), it is not a national assessment of how refugees are served in the United States. It also focused on three communities that are very experienced in providing services to refugees.

Overall, the study found that most refugees, even the ones with the most significant barriers to employment, are finding employment and are able to become self-sufficient. Family income, however, is close to the poverty level for a family of four during the first years in the United States.

The study identified several promising strategies. These include the following:

• Strong coordination between service providers. As mentioned above, all three sites have a long history of resettling refugees and have developed comprehensive systems for serving them. In Houston, the consortium consisting of five Volags and two education providers meets regularly and coordinates its work so services are provided effectively and in a similar fashion within the community. In Sacramento, the workforce agency has the primary contract to deliver RSS and TAG services, but it relies on community-based organizations, many of which are mutual assistance associations ( MAAs), to provide the services. The group of providers meets monthly to discuss service delivery. Miami, the largest program among the three sites, has the most extensive network of service providers administered through the workforce agency, community college, and public school district. A refugee coalition in Miami meets monthly to share information and coordinate activities.
• Bringing ESL instruction where refugees live. Houston offers ESL classes in the four apartment complexes where refugees are resettled. This is helpful because many refugees do not have any means of transportation when they first arrive. Additionally, the ESL provider offers babysitting services at the complex so the women can attend. ESL instructors noted that it was not uncommon for them to go to the refugees’ apartments and encourage those who were not attending to come to class.
• Integrating ESL in employment settings. Some Miami employers integrate ESL instruction with employment. For example, a rehabilitation center hires refugees that have professional training in health care to be certified nursing assistants (CNAs). Many of their CNAs are overqualified and need to learn English so they can move up to other jobs in the health care field. The goal of the program is for students to improve their English to a level that would enable them to pass licensing tests and advance in the health profession. Another employer, a pharmacy, has contracted with a private language training organization for a special English class for managers and assistant managers.
• Certification and career laddering program. Miami serves a number of refugees who were professionals in their native country but who lack certification to do similar work in the United States. These workers include professors, health care providers, engineers, architects, and accountants. The Career Laddering initiative in Miami is designed to assist refugees with credentialing, training, and obtaining employment in a field consistent with the refugees’ career goals. The goal of the program is placement as close as possible to the field they worked in when in their home country.
• Cultural competency provided by former refugees. All the programs rely on staff and organizations in the community that have a deep understanding of the issues refugees are facing. Many who serve refugees were refugees themselves at one point and have since established their lives in the mainstream community. In Houston, since Volags receive a continually changing group of refugees, they rely on earlier waves of refugees from a given country to serve as interpreters and assist them in acculturating refugees in their new communities. Sacramento has the most extensive network of MAAs, which assist the refugees and serve as places where refugees can meet and socialize with others from their home countries.

In the course of conducting this study, several opportunities for future research were identified, including the following:

• Conducting studies in additional communities. In particular, it would be worthwhile to conduct studies in communities that have smaller programs and less experience resettling refugees. In addition, refugees are moving to particular communities after being resettled elsewhere, and including communities subject to secondary migration is important. Finally, this study did not examine Wilson/Fish states or communities, another approach to providing refugee services in the United States or the Matching Grant program in sites other than Houston.
• Evaluating most effective approaches to delivering services. There is a growing debate within the refugee community regarding which approach best serves refugees and increases refugees’ employment and self-sufficiency: to have programs delivering services administered by the Volags (either through a Texas-style PPP, a Wilson-Fish program, the Matching Grant program, or some new model ) or by state or county agencies. Both strategies have certain advantages: Volags have the background and understanding of the cultural issues refugees face, while the welfare and workforce agencies have the social service and employment expertise. A demonstration could be conducted in states or communities interested in moving to a PPP or Wilson/Fish model to test the outcomes using the new procedures relative to the publicly-administered approach. Alternatively, a demonstration could be conducted among Volags serving some refugees with the Matching Grant program, while referring others to the publicly-administered program. If refugees are randomly assigned to the two programs, to ensure the refugees in each group are similar, their outcomes could be compared over time to determine which approach is most effective.
• Evaluating approaches to providing ESL. The study identified differences in service delivery that warrant further study, including whether refugees fare better when they focus on learning English before moving into the labor market or when they move quickly into the labor market, which could mean dropping out of ESL. Other differences that could be studied include strategies to provide ESL instruction in the workplace, programs that combine employment services with ESL in one setting, and programs that combine literacy education with ESL.
• Following refugees over a longer period. This study examined employment outcomes and family income over the refugees’ first few years in the country. Another study could examine longer-term outcomes. It could examine whether refugees remain in entry-level jobs or improve their human capital and find better jobs, how their children fare over time, and how the refugees and children adjust to life in the United States.

Finally, new waves of refugees will be coming to the United States in the next few years. There will be additional opportunities to obtain information on these new refugees, including their education and past work experience, languages spoken, needs, and employment outcomes.

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APPENDIX A: REFUGEE ARRIVALS

Appendix Table A.1: Refugee Arrivals by State and Type of State Program

Fiscal Years 2000–2004

State	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2000–2004	Type of program
Alabama	152	116	44	49	86	447	W/F
Alaska	13	55	19	28	42	157	W/F
Arizona	2,420	2,399	1,034	1,038	2,263	9,154	PA
Arkansas	17	14	0	5	20	56	PA
California	9,640	10,148	4,293	4,205	6,749	35,035	PA & W/F a
Colorado	955	1,026	449	476	798	3,704	W/F
Connecticut	1,029	989	456	214	427	3,115	PA
Delaware	46	62	36	40	10	194	PA
District of Columbia	233	116	33	107	65	554	PA
Florida	22,880	19,883	17,616	10,224	19,675	90,278	PA
Georgia	3,296	2,522	911	1,102	2,205	10,036	PA
Hawaii	28	19	4	15	24	90	PA
Idaho	671	676	280	257	362	2,246	W/F
Illinois	3,206	2,701	918	953	1,420	9,198	PA
Indiana	648	528	181	262	457	2,076	PA
Iowa	1,342	1,054	411	227	461	3,495	PA
Kansas	167	161	49	99	138	614	PA
Kentucky	1,454	1,327	711	555	1,367	5,414	W/F
Louisiana	521	397	150	113	381	1,562	W/F
Maine	241	224	92	106	187	850	PA
Maryland	975	1,354	418	793	935	4,475	PPP
Massachusetts	1,961	1,964	759	832	1,540	7,056	W/F
Michigan	2,924	2,633	689	546	1,388	8,180	PA
Minnesota	3,492	3,232	701	1,750	5,827	15,002	PPP
Mississippi	47	107	11	3	12	180	PA
Missouri	2,489	2,267	769	444	925	6,894	PA
Montana	15	10	4	34	7	70	PA
Nebraska	552	661	199	212	489	2,113	PA
Nevada	720	553	333	390	722	2,718	W/F
New Hampshire	606	538	255	240	561	2,200	PA
New Jersey	1,605	1,607	587	659	887	5,345	PA
New Mexico	303	285	190	96	194	1,068	PA
New York	6,930	6,988	2,796	2,503	3,683	22,900	PA
North Carolina	1,064	1,065	1,388	596	1,130	5,243	PA
North Dakota	636	367	52	105	222	1,382	W/F
Ohio	1,780	1,364	561	658	1,437	5,800	PA
Oklahoma	102	126	52	61	92	433	PPP
Oregon	1,636	1,499	1,072	866	1,598	6,671	PPP
Pennsylvania	2,602	2,691	1,115	1,322	1,814	9,544	PA
Rhode Island	309	313	40	130	315	1,107	PA
South Carolina	82	85	81	116	150	514	PA
South Dakota	378	298	107	159	329	1,271	W/F
Tennessee	1,078	924	357	458	952	3,769	PA
Texas	4,347	3,804	1,697	1,810	4,086	15,744	PPP
Utah	1,137	922	251	400	772	3,482	PA
Vermont	275	261	89	78	235	938	W/F
Virginia	2,167	1,824	687	850	1,694	7,222	PA
Washington	4,378	4,300	2,615	2,751	3,018	17,062	PA
West Virginia	11	11	1	2	0	25	PA
Wisconsin	599	585	187	236	1,670	3,277	PA
Wyoming	2	0	0	1	0	3	None
Puerto Rico	61	49	43	25	30	208	None
Total	94,222	87,104	45,793	39,201	73,851	340,171

Source: Office of Refugee Resettlement http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm

W/F = Wilson/Fish; PPP = public/private partnership; PA = publicly-administered

Notes: Includes Amerasians, aslyees (from Northern Iraq), and entrants

^a California operates a publicly-administered program in all counties except San Diego, which operates a Wilson/Fish program

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Glossary

Amerasian: Certain Amerasians from Vietnam who are admitted to the U.S. as immigrants pursuant to Sec. 584 of the Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1988 (as contained in Sec. 101(e) of Public Law 100-202 and amended by the 9th proviso under Migration and Refugee Assistance in title II of the Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Acts, 1989 (Public Law 100-461 as amended) and “was born in Vietnam after January 1, 1962 and before January 1, 1976 and was fathered by a citizen of the United States.” Amerasians are admitted to the United States as immigrants, rather than refugees. They and their immediate relatives are entitled to ORR-funded refugee services and benefits to the same extent as refugees.

Asylee: UnderSection 208 of the Immigration and Nationality Act, individuals who meet the legal definition of refugee, but who apply for asylum status after they are already present in the U.S. or at a port of entry. Asylum applicants can have any (or no) immigration status when they apply. Asylum status can be granted by either a USCIS asylum officer or by an Immigration Judge with the U.S. Department of Justice’s Executive Office of Immigration Review. Asylees are eligible for ORR-funded refugee benefits and assistance beginning on the date of their final grant of asylum.

Cuban/Haitian Entrant: (a) Any individual granted parole status as a Cuban/Haitian Entrant (Status Pending) or granted any other special status subsequently established under the immigration laws for nationals of Cuba or Haiti, regardless of the status of the individual at the time assistance or services are provided; and (b) Any other national of Cuba or Haiti

(1) Who: (i) Was paroled into the United States and has not acquired any other status under the Immigration and Nationality Act; (ii) Is the subject of exclusion or deportation proceedings under the Immigration and Nationality Act; or (iii) Has an application for asylum pending with the Immigration and Naturalization Service; and (2) With respect to whom a final, nonappealable, and legally enforceable order of deportation or exclusion has not been entered. (Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980, Pub. L. No. 96-422)

Economic Self-Sufficiency: For the purposes of programs administered by the ORR, earning a total family income through unsubsidized employment at a level that enables a family unit to support itself without receipt of a cash assistance grant.

Date of Entry: An ORR term for the date on which individuals become eligible for ORR benefits and services. For refugees this is their date of arrival in the U.S. (as recorded on the Form I-94 Arrival/Departure Record). For Cuban/Haitian entrants this is the date they were granted Cuban/Haitian entrant status, which is typically the date of their parole into the U.S. For asylees this is the date of final grant of asylum (as noted on the approval letter or immigration court order). For victims of a severe form of trafficking it is the date of certification or eligibility (as noted on the certification or eligibility letter), or date they were granted a T visa.

Legal Permanent Resident (LPR): A non-U.S. citizen (i.e., alien) who has been given permission to remain permanently in the U.S., subject to continued compliance with the Immigration and Nationality Act . LPRs are sometimes called “immigrants” and the I-551 which is evidence of LPR status is commonly known as a "green card”. After five years in LPR status and if otherwise not ineligible an LPR is eligible to apply for naturalization to become a U.S. citizen. LPRs who obtained LPR status by marriage to a U.S. citizen are eligible to apply for naturalization in three years.

Matching Grant: The ORR discretionary Matching Grant program is an alternative to public cash assistance offered through the voluntary agency (Volag) network. ORR provides matched funds to participating Volag affiliates that are required to provide employment services, case management, maintenance assistance (which includes provision of food or food subsidies, housing, and transportation) and cash allowance. Enrollment in Matching Grant services must be within the first thirty-one days of eligibility, with maintenance assistance provided for at least four months, and case management/employment services continuing through 180 days (six months). Services are designed to assist refugees enter employment, achieve self-sufficiency, and not access public assistance.

Medicaid: Medicaid is a state administered program, jointly funded by the states and federal government that provides medical coverage to eligible persons based on age, income, and/or disability status. Eligible groups include children, adults with dependent minors, and SSI recipients. Each state sets its own guidelines regarding eligibility and services.

Mutual Assistance Associations (MAA): A non-profit, community-based organization promoting successful refugee resettlement comprised of refugee populations. Generally, MAAs are small grass-roots organizations that work in specific communities and geographic areas. ORR encourages states to give special consideration to MAAs in contracting refugee services.

Parolee: An alien permitted entry to the U.S. for humanitarian reasons or when determined to be for significant public benefit. Parole does not constitute a formal admission to the United States and confers temporary status only. Absent a change in or adjustment of status, parolees must depart the U.S. when the conditions supporting their parole cease to exist. There are several types of parole, including parole authorized as part of an overseas parole program (such as the U.S. has with Cuba), port-of-entry parole, deferred inspection parole, advance parole, humanitarian parole, or public interest parole.

Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Program: States have the option of entering into a partnership agreement with local resettlement agencies for the operation of a public/private refugee cash assistance (RCA) program.  The partnerships facilitate the successful resettlement of refugee by integrating cash assistance with resettlement services and ongoing case management. Through these public/private RCA programs, States are permitted to include employment incentives that support the refugee program’s goal of family self-sufficiency and social adjustment in the shortest possible time after arrival.

Reception and Placement Program: Upon arrival, refugees are provided initial resettlement services through cooperative agreements to voluntary agencies (Volags) by the Department of State. These initial "nesting" services cover basic food, clothing, shelter, orientation, referral, and other services for the first 30 days after the refugee’s arrival in the U.S.

Refugee: Any person who is outside any country of such person's nationality or, in the case of a person having no nationality, is outside any country in which such person last habitually resided, and who is unable or unwilling to return to, and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of that country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The term “refugee” is distinguished from “asylee” in that “refugee” refers to individuals admitted into the U.S. under Section 207 of the Immigration and Nationality Act and determined to be refugees before arriving in the U.S., while asylees are aliens in the U.S. who are determined to meet the legal definition of “refugee” and are granted asylum in the U.S.

In this report, the term “refugee” is often used inclusively to refer to anyone eligible for ORR benefits and services (such as RSS or TAG), including refugees, asylees, Cuban-Haitian entrants, Amerasians, victims of a severe form of trafficking, and Lawful Permanent Residents (LPRs) who have held one of these statuses in the past.

Refugee Cash Assistance (RCA): A short-term need-based cash benefit available to ORR-eligible populations for up to eight months from their date of entry. Refugees who meet the income and resource eligibility standards of TANF or SSI, but are not otherwise eligible for those programs, such as single adults and childless adults, and meet other eligibility requirements may receive benefits under RCA.

Refugee Medical Assistance (RMA): Short-term need-based medical insurance available to ORR eligible populations for up to eight months from their date of entry. Refugees who meet income limits and other eligibility requirements, but are not eligible for Medicaid or the State Child Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), may receive benefits under RMA. All recipients of Refugee Cash Assistance but not Medicaid or SCHIP, are eligible for RMA.

Refugee Social Services (RSS): Intensive social services provided to help refugees obtain employment, achieve economic self-sufficiency, and realize social adjustment. Programs that administer RSS services are funded through the Office of Refugee Resettlement, which provides both state grants and direct-service grants. The programs provide employability and other services which may include employment assistance, job training, English language training, and social adjustment. Refugees and other ORR eligible populations are only eligible for this program for the first 60 months from their date of entry.

Section 8 Vouchers: Federal housing assistance for low-income renters provided under the Housing Choice Voucher Program. Assistance is in the form of direct payments to private landlords and limits the monthly rent payment paid by the tenant.

Supplemental Security Income (SSI): Federally-administered program that provides assistance for individuals who are aged, blind, or disabled and have limited income and resources as established under title XVI of the Social Security Act.

Targeted Assistance Formula Grant (TAG): The targeted assistance program funds employability and other services for refugees who reside in areas of high need. These localities are defined as counties or contiguous county areas with unusually large refugee populations, high refugee concentrations in relation to the overall population, or high use of public assistance among refugees. Targeted assistance services are similar to refugee social services except targeted assistance prioritize serving clients who are long term cash assistance recipients compared to newly arrived refugees. Refugees and other ORR eligible populations are only eligible for this program for the first 60 months from their date of entry.

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF): State-administered program, jointly funded by the states and federal government, that provides cash assistance and work opportunities to needy families with dependent children. States are granted wide flexibility to develop and implement their own welfare programs.

Victims of a Severe Form of Trafficking: Individuals who are subjected to (1) Sex Trafficking, which is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act49, in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person forced to perform such an act is under the age of 18 years; or (2) Labor Trafficking, which is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery. Victims of trafficking are eligible for ORR benefits and services and other federal benefits provided they have been certified as a victim of trafficking by ORR.

Voluntary Agency (Volag): Public or private agencies that provide initial reception and placement services to newly-arriving refugees under cooperative agreements with the Department of State. Currently, the Department of State has such agreements with nine national Volags and one state government agency ( Iowa). Local affiliates of these national agencies are also referred to as Volags and are responsible for providing initial "nesting" (Reception and Placement) services covering basic food, clothing, shelter, orientation, referral, and other services for the first 30 days after admission for refugees, and often serve as providers of other services, including RSS, TAG or Matching Grant.

Wilson/Fish Alternative Program: Wilson/Fish is an alternative to the traditional publicly administered refugee resettlement program (as outlined in the ORR regulations) for providing integrated assistance (cash and medical) and services (employment, case-management, ESL and other social services) to refugees and others eligible for refugee benefits. The purpose of the Wilson/Fish program is to increase refugee prospects for early employment and self-sufficiency and reduce their level of welfare dependence; promote coordination among voluntary resettlement agencies and service providers; and to ensure that refugee assistance programs exist in every State where refugees are resettled.

States that determine that a public/private RCA program or publicly-administered program modeled after its TANF program is not the best approach for the state may apply to establish an alternative approach under the Wilson/Fish program. If a state withdraws from all or part of the refugee resettlement program, a public or private nonprofit organization may apply to operate refugee programs in the state under the Wilson/Fish program.

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

For definitions of immigration statuses, see USCIS Glossary (http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.eb1d4c2a3e5b9ac89243c6a7543f6d1a/
?vgnextoid=b328194d3e88d010VgnVCM10000048f3d6a1RCRD&vgnextchannel=
b328194d3e88d010VgnVCM10000048f3d6a1RCRD)

For definitions of services provided to refugees and related populations, see websites of the Office of Refugee Resettlement (http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/) and the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (http://www.state.gov/g/prm/). Particularly useful subpages of these websites include:

• ORR programs page: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/programs/index.htm
• ORR benefits and services page: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/benefits/index.htm
• Most recent ORR annual report: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/05arc2.htm#_Ref532867079
• Regulations governing programs administered by ORR: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/policy/orr_regulations.htm
• Most recent PRM report on proposed refugee admissions: http://www.state.gov/g/prm/refadm/rls/rpts/52366.htm

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49 Any sex act on account of which anything of value is given to or received by any person.

Last Updated: September 18, 2008